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LEAVES 



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SPEAR^ 




v, ^v. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



%pQK^tip^ri# :f a, 

INITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS 



PLANT STUDIES FOR YOUNG READERS 



BY 



MARY A. SPEAR 

DF Model School, State 
West Chester, Penn. 



Late Principal of Model School, State Normal School, 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1892 



„0^T 6 m 



~p 



Copyright, 1892, 
Bt MARY A. SPEAR. 



a^*"^ 



Typography by J. S. Gushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



In primary schools, at the present day, considerable time 
and attention are given to training the perceptive faculties, 
and for this purpose elementary science is introduced. This 
makes an increasing demand for reading matter which may 
be used by pupils to supplement their observation lessons. 

The purpose of this work is to furnish short and easy 
sentences calculated to stimulate thought and investigation. 
The subjects presented are not beyond the understanding of 
pupils who have been in school two or three years. They 
have been tested in classes of little children, and many sen- 
tences on these pages are thought expressions given by 
pupils. 

Every lesson presents some fact in descriptive botany so 
obvious that it may be discovered by very young children if 
they have specimens to examine. After they have made dis- 
coveries, they are able to read and to understand the lan- 
guage used to express them. 

To illustrate these facts, common leaves and flowers have 
been chosen. If specimens like those named in a lesson 
cannot be obtained, there are many others which are similar, 
and which may be used to illustrate the fact mentioned. 



IV PREFACE. 

When reading about a leaf, twig, or flower, it is essential 
that pupils see and handle specimens in order to receive and 
retain the thoughts expressed in a lesson. Without this 
examination of a plant or its parts, but little real knowledge 
will be gained. 

Botanical specimens are abundant and inexpensive. Pupils 
should be encouraged to make collections for both school and 
home study. Collections of pressed leaves are valuable in 
winter. 

Since many teachers have new classes and new pupils in 
September, this book has been arranged to begin with mate- 
rials which may be easily obtained at that time. 

A pupil in Second Grade may begin the study of leaves at 
the beginning of the school year, and continue the work 
during the fall term, using from pressed collections late in 
the season. In spring he is prepared to resume the study 
and to watch the growth and unfolding of buds. 

" The study of Botany becomes more and more interesting the more 
we learn of it, and affords a constant and unalloyed intellectual gratifica- 
tion." — Gray. 

If the study of this book leads any little child to have a 
love for the study of Botany, the writer is repaid for her 
labors. 



CONTENTS. 



A Petiole . 

A Blade 

An Oak Leaf 

Many Leaves 

Color of Blades 

Sessile Leaves 

Sessile Leaves 

IjST the Woods 

Stipules 

Review 

The Veins . 

An Ivy Leaf 

A Middle Vein 

Veinlets 

A Plantain 

The Use of Veins 

Review 

A Network of Veins 

Net-veined Leaves 

Parallel Veins 

Parallel-veined Leaves 

Review 



1 

2 

3 

3 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 



VI cc 


)NTE 


NTS. 












PAGE 


The Base of a Leaf ....... 21 


The Apex of a Leaf 












22 


Shapes of Leaves 














23 


Ix A Park .... 














24 


DiFFEREXT Shapes 














25 


A Wide Apex . 














26 


The Calla .... 














28 


The Arrow-head 














29 


A Peach Leaf . 














30 


An Apple Leaf . 














32 


Many Forms 














33 


Cordate Leaves 














35 


The Catalpa 














35 


Review . . 














37 


Margins .... 














38 


Crenate Margins 














39 


Serrate Margins 














40 


Dentate Margins 














41 


Other Margins . 














42 


The Hepatica . 














44 


Lobes .... 














45 


Eeview 














46 


Mullein and Thistle 














47 


Autumn 














49 


ISTODES AND InTERNODES 














51 


Gathering Twigs 














52 


How Buds are Placed 














. 54 


About Bud Scales 














56 


Watching Leaf Buds 














58 


The Horse-chestnut . 














60 



COKTENTS. 



Vll 



The Lilac . 

How Leaves are Folded 

Parts of a Flower 

The Cherry Blossom 

The Calyx . 

The Corolla 

KixDS OF Corolla 

The Periaxth . 

Lilies . 

Stamexs 

More about Stamexs 

The Pistil . 

Flower Time 

Stems of Flowers 

KixDS OF Clusters 

Sprixg 

Wild Flowers . 

The A^iolet 

Summer Flowers 

The Buttercup . 

Later Flowers . 

September . 



PAGE 

61 
63 
65 

68 
68 
70 
72 
76 
78 
78 
81 
83 
85 
86 
88 
91 
92 
95 
96 
99 
100 
103 



" Chide me not, laborious band, 
For the idle flowers I brought; 
Every aster in my hand 

Goes home loaded with a thought." 

Emerson. 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



o>*<o 



A PETIOLE. 



Heleis" and Frank are standing under a tree. It 
is a maple tree. 

Some green leaves are on 
the ground. They are green 
maple leaves. 

They fell from the maple 
tree^ and are called maple 
leaves. 

Helen picks up a leaf and 
gives it to Frank. She has 
another leaf in her hand. 

Each leaf has a long stem. 
The stem of a leaf is called 
its petiole. 

The petiole of a maple leaf is green. 

Can you find a maple leaf ? 

Frank runs away to some other trees. They are 
oak trees. 




Z LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

He finds leaves on them. He takes some of the 
leaves to his sister Helen. 

They are not like maple leaves. The trees on 
which they grew are not like maple trees. 



o^<Ko 



A BLADE. 



Here is an oak leaf with a short stem. Shall we 
call the stem a petiole ? 

It is green like the petiole of a 
maple leaf. 

The stem of an oak leaf is not 
so long as the stem of a maple leaf. 
An oak leaf has a short, green 
petiole. 

What is the other part of a leaf 
called ? 

It is called the blade. The broad^ 
green part of a leaf is the blade. 
The blade of an oak leaf is thicker than the blade 
of a maple leaf. 

Bring five leaves to the class to-morrow. Show 
and name their parts. 

Bring some leaves with long petioles. Bring some 
with short petioles. 

Make a drawing of an oak leaf. 




MANY LEAVES. 



AN OAK LEAF. 



Helen found a pretty oak leaf. She put it into 
a book. She did this that she might keep it. 

The blade of the oak leaf was dark green. It did 
not look like a maple leaf. It was shining. 

Helen's oak leaf was small. The blade was just 
three inches long. 

The petiole was very short. It was only one-half 
an inch lono;. 

Some oak leaves are five inches long. Some oak 
leaves are more than five inches long. 

The petioles of oak leaves are not so long as the 
petioles of maple leaves. 

Can you find some oak leaves and some maple 
leaves ? 

Tell how their petioles are unlike. 



oXKo 



MANY LEAVES. 

Here are some leaves. I took two from an oak 
tree, and two from a maple tree. I took other leaves 
from an elm tree. 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



Each leaf lias a petiole and a blade. 

The blade of each leaf is green. The blade of an 




ehn leaf is not so long as that of an oak leaf. It is 

not shining like an oak leaf. 

The blade of an elm leaf is 
not so wide as the blade of a 
maple leaf. 

The petiole of an elm leaf 
is not like the petiole of an 
oak leaf. It is not like the 
petiole of a maple leaf. 

Can you make a drawing of 
an elm leaf ? 

Try to find two leaves that 
have long petioles^ and two that have short petioles. 




SESSILE LEAVES. 5 



COLOR OF BLADES. 

The broad part of a leaf is the blade. Most leaves 
have green blades. 

The blades of some leaves are light green. Some 
kinds of leaves have dark green blades. 

Sometimes the blades of leaves are red and yellow. 
Other leaves have pretty brown blades. 

A leaf may have more than one color in its blade. 
Some leaves have green blades marked with white lines. 

Green leaf blades are sometimes marked with red 
or brown lines. 

When cold weather comes, green leaves change to 
red, yellow, and brown. 

Maple leaves change to red and yellow. Oak 
leaves change from green to red and brown. 

Does an elm leaf change to red, yellow, or brown ? 

What becomes of the leaves after they change 
color ? 

SESSILE LEAVES. 

One day in the spring, Frank went out to the 
woods. 

He found some pretty purple flowers. He carried 
these flowers and their leaves to his sister Helen. 



6 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



She looked at the leaves but did not see any peti- 
oles. She thought the petioles had forgotten to grow. 
Perhaps they would grow when the leaves were older. 

Frank and Helen took the leaves to their mamma. 

Mamma said that some leaves never have f)Btioles. 
Such leaves grow close to a stalk. They look as if 
they were sitting on a stalk. 

Frank said that when he found leaves without 
petioles^ he would call them sitting leaves. 

^^ That will be right/' said mamma^ ^^but sessile is 
a better name for them." 

Sessile means sitting. 



o>4Ko 




SESSILE LEAVES. 

Some leaves do not have 
petioles. These are called 
sessile leaves. 

Sessile leaves grow close 
to a stalk. They look as if 
they were sitting on a stalk. 

Frank arid Helen tried to 
find some sessile leaves. 
They went to mamma's flower garden. Here they 
found a pretty pink flower. It grew on a low plant. 



IK THE WOODS. 7 

The leaves on this plant did not have petioles. 
They were sessile leaves. 

Mamma had two kinds of marigolds in her garden. 
One kind had sessile leaves. One kind had leaves 
with petioles. 

Frank went to the fields to look for leaves. He 
found some that had petioles. He fomid some that 
were sessile. 

He found the low cornel or bnnchberry. A bunch 
of scarlet berries was just above some leaves. 

Frank thought the 
leaves on this plant were 
sessile. He pulled one 
off and saw a very short 
petiole. The leaf was 
nearly sessile. 

IN THE WOODS. 

One warm day in May, mamma^ Helen, and Frank 
went to walk. They went to the woods for wild 
flowers. 

They found Solomon' s-seal with its pretty white 
flowers. The flowers looked like little bells. 

Helen and Frank looked at its leaves. They were 
growing close to a stalk. They seemed to be sitting 




8 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

on a green stalk. The leaves of Solomon's-seal are 
sessile. 

Frank found some flowers near the trunk of a tree. 
They were pale yellow bells. Mamma called them 
wild oats, or bellwort. 

The bellwort had light green leaves. All the 
leaves were sessile. 

Helen found a flower of a rich yellow color. It 
was a marsh marigold. Sometimes it is called a 
cowslip, but that is not its right name. 

Where the marsh marigold grew, the ground was 
wet. It was in a meadow and near a brook. 

The dark green leaves of a marsh marigold are 
thick and glossy. Those which grow nearest the 
flowers are sessile. The lower leaves have petioles. 



o>0<o 



STIPULES. 

One morning Helen went to look for sessile leaves. 
She went to some bushes that grew near her home. 

Last spring, one of these bushes had pretty red 
flowers. Helen called it a Japan quince. It had 
another long name which she could not tell. 

She took a leaf from this bush to see whether it 
was sessile. The leaf had a petiole. 



REVIEW. y 

When Helen looked at its petiole^ she saw two 
little bits of green on it. These bits of green looked 
like a pair of leaves 
growing from the 

petiole. /l^- — ^>-- ^ //^y^T^I 

They looked like i ^^--^^ / / // 1^ 

leaf blades, but were 

very small. There 

was one on each side of the petiole. 

They grew near the end of the petiole. They 
were close to the place w^here it joined the stalk. 

These small leaf-like bodies are stipules. 

Can you find leaves with stipules ? 




o>8<o 



REVIEW. 

What part of a leaf is the blade ? 

Tell some leaves that have broad blades. 

Tell some that have long blades. 

Tell some that have round blades. 

What leaves have dark green blades ? 

What kinds have lioi-ht tureen blades ? 

Name some leaves which have shining blades. 

Name two leaves which have long petioles. 

Name two which have short petioles. 



10 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

Name two which have no petioles. 

What are such leaves called ? 

What does sessile mean ? 

What vine has sessile leaves ? 

What are stipules ? 

Name some leaves that have stipules. 



o>^o 



THE VEINS. 

Look at this maple leaf. There are some hard 
lines in its blade. 

These lines are hard^ like a stem or petiole. They 
seem like branches coming from a petiole. 

There are other smaller branches coming from 
these. 

The five large branches come from the petiole, and 
look like the sticks of your fan. 

Of what use are the sticks in your fan ? 

They make it spread out, and these little branches 
in the blade make a leaf spread out. 

The sticks in your fan are made of wood. Are the 
branches in this leaf made of wood ? 

We will call them woody. 

The five large branches in the blade of a maple 
leaf are called veins. 



AN lYY LEAF. 



11 



There is one vein running straight from the peti- 
ole through the middle of the blade. 



o>&<o 



AN IVY LEAF. 

Here is an ivy leaf. It did not grow on a tree^ like 
an elm leaf. It grew on a vine. 

The vine on which it grew is 
as long as two sides of a room. 

This ivy leaf has a petiole three 
inches long. Some ivy leaves 
have longer petioles. Some ivy 
leaves have shorter petioles. 

Is the ivy leaf sessile ? 

The blade of this leaf is about 
one-half as long as the petiole. 
It has five points. 

An ivy leaf like this is dark green on its upper side. 
The color is not so dark on its under side. 

There are five large, white veins in the blade. One 
of these w^hite veins is in the middle of the blade. It 
is the middle vein of the leaf. 

This ivy leaf has other white veins. They are 
smaller than the five large veins. 

The blade of an ivy leaf is smooth. 




12 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



A MIDDLE VEIN. 



In this maple leaf^ there are five little branches. 
They come out from the petiole, like the branches of 

a tree. 

These little branches 
are called veins. 

There is one vein run- 
nino; strait>;ht from the 
petiole. It passes through 
the middle of the blade. 

Look at an oak leaf. 
Do you see any veins ? 

There is one large vein 
in the middle of an oak 
leaf. 

Look at a beech leaf, an elm leaf, and a leaf from 
a cherry tree. Each of these has a large vein in the 
middle of its blade. 

Look at lilac leaves and grape leaves to see whether 
they have middle veins. 

A middle vein is called a midvein. 
Frank has looked at a great many leaves. He has 
looked at a great rhubarb leaf. It has a very large 
vein in the middle of its blade. This is its mid- 
vein. 




VEINLETS. 



13 



Prank thinks the middle vein of a rhubarb leaf is 
as large as one of his fingers. 

Helen has found some small leaves. She sees a 
mid vein in each. 

She cannot find a leaf without a mid vein. Perhaps 
she may find one to-morrow. 

Helen and Frank look at a great many leaves. 
They try to find one without a mid vein. 



o>d<o 



VEINLETS. 

A middle vein is called a mid vein. 

Look at an oak, an elm^ or a beech leaf. Little 
branches or veins come out from the 
midvein. Other^ smaller veins come 
from these. 

These smallest branches are called 
veinlets. This word means little 
veins. 

All veinlets are not the same size. 
Some are so small they are not 
easily seen. 

Some leaves have more veins 
than others. A maple leaf has five 
large veins. It has many small veins or veinlets. 




14 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



Some leaves on a sassafras tree have three large 
vems and many vemlets. You may see other sassa- 
fras leaves having only one large vem. 

Bring leaves to the class to show the veins and 
veinlets in them. 

Make drawings of the veins and veinlets in leaves. 



A PLANTAIN. 

Frank found a pretty green plantain leaf. It was 
growing close to the ground. 

Plantains often grow near 
a door-step. In the country, 
they grow along the roadside. 
Sometimes they are called rib- 
worts. 

A plantain leaf has grooves in 
its petiole. Look at a plantain 
leaf to see what grooves are. 

Frank broke the petiole of a 
plantain leaf. There were some 
little strings in it. These strings 
ran far up into the blade. 
They were in the veins of the leaf. 

These little strings were very strong. Frank pulled 




' fh 



THE USE OF YEI]S"S. 15 

them, and this made the blade of the leaf curve. 
Then it looked like the bowl of a spoon. 

Frank's leaf had seven large veins. It had many 
veinlets. It had a mid vein which was larger than 
any other vein. 

There is more than one kind of plantain. Some 
kinds have wide leaves. Other kinds have leaves 
that are long and not very wide. 



o^^o 



THE USE OF VEINS. 

Veins and veinlets keep a leaf spread out. When 
leaves spread out, they make shade for us. 

When vines are broken, water or juice comes out 
of them. This water or juice is called sap. 

There are veins and veinlets in every part of a blade. 
Sap goes to all parts of a blade through veins and vein- 
lets. 

Small veins have but little sap. If the veins are 
large, there may be much sap in them. 

Spaces between veins and veinlets are filled with the 
soft green blade. 

Where there are many veins and veinlets, there is 
much sap and a great deal of the soft green blade. 

Break some veins, and you can see the sap. 

What color is it? 



16 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



REVIEW. 



What are the branches in leaves called ? 
Of what use are these branches ? 
How many midveins are m one leaf ? 
What is a midvein ? 

Tell some leaves that have large midveins. 
Tell some that have small midveins. 
Have you ever seen a leaf without a midvein ? 
Tell some leaves that have more than one large vein. 
What are veinlets ? 

What leaf have you seen having many veinlets ? 
What is in the veins of leaves? 
What did Frank find in the veins of a plantain 
leaf ? 

A NETWORK OF VEINS. 

Did you ever hold a leaf between your eyes and the 
light ? 

Helen held up a peach leaf to see its veins and vein- 
lets. It looked like lace with a green cover over it. 

In the leaf there were tiny veins that seemed to join 
other little veins. These veinlets crossed one another 
in every way. Helen thought of threads in a piece of 
lace. 



I^ET-VEINED LEAVES. 



17 



She held other leaves between her eyes and the light 
Some had veinlets very close together. In others the 
veinlets were farther apart. 

Helen told her mamma that these leaves looked like 
tiny fish-nets. 

Mamma said, " When veins and veinlets join one 
another, like these, a leaf is called net-veined." 



o>©<o 



NET-VEINED LEAVES. 

When veins and veinlets run into one another, they 
make a net-veined leaf. 

Helen and Frank think 
they will know net-veined 
leaves when they find 
them. If they want to 
know when a leaf is net- 
veined, they will hold it 
between their eyes and 
the light. 

When veins and vein 
lets seem to make a lace- 
work all over the blade, the leaf is net-veined. 

"Perhaps all leaves are not net-veined," said Helen. 

" I never thought about that," said Frank. 




18 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



Now Helen and Frank will look at different kinds of 
leaves to see whether they are net-veined. 

If they can find some which are not net-veined^ they 
will want to know wdiat those are called. 

They will look at the leaves of a birch, a cherry, a 
lily of the valley, and at some blades of grass. 



0i:<K0 



PARALLEL VEINS. 

In the garden were some lilies of the valley. 
Little white bells hung from the upper part of their 
stems. These white bells were the 
flowers. They were very fragrant. 

Mamma gathered some of these 
flowers and their leaves. She gave a 
leaf to Helen, and told her to look 
at the veins. 

The midvein and the other veins 
seemed to run side by side. 

Helen could not see any branching 
veins. She could not see any network 
of veins. It was not a net-veined leaf. 
Mamma told her that w^hen veins 
run side by side, like these, they are called parallel 
veins. Many kinds of leaves have parallel veins. 




PARALLEL-YEINED LEAVES. 



19 



Helen will look for parallel-veined leaves. Some- 
times she will find those in which the parallel veins 
are nearly straight. They are curved but little. 

At other times she will find veins with double 
curves. If these veins run side by side^ the leaf will 
be parallel-veined. 



o>^o 



PARALLEL-VEINED LEAVES. 

Helen has been looking at many leaves. She has 
looked at the veining^ to see whether a leaf is net- 
veined or parallel-veined. 

In some leaves she finds paral- 
lel veins. They are like those in 
a lily of the valley. 

She finds other leaves having 
parallel veins^ but the veins do 
not run the same way as the mid- 
vein. Helen looks at a calla leaf. 
Its veins are side by side. They 
branch out from the midvein and 
run towards the edge of the leaf. 

The veins on one side of the midvein all run the 
same way, towards the edge of the leaf. They do 
not branch out in different ways like a net-veined leaf. 




20 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

When Helen tears a calla leaf, it tears parallel 
to its veins. Then she knows it is a parallel-veined 
leaf. 

Helen has learned there are two kinds of parallel- 
veined leaves. One kind has all its veins running the 
same way as its mid vein. Another kind has veins 
side by side from the midvein to the edge of the leaf. 

Can you find a lily leaf that is parallel-veined ? Try 
to find a lily leaf that is net- veined. 



0>&<0 



REVIEW. 

How can you hold a leaf to see its veining? 

How do you know that a leaf is net-veined ? 

What makes the network ? 

In a net-veined leaf, are the veins large or small ? 

How do you know that a leaf is parallel-veined ? 

Are parallel veins straight or curved ? 

What kind of veining do you find in a blade of 
grass ? 

Is an elm leaf net-veined or parallel-veined ? 

Look at a leaf from Indian corn, then tell whether 
it is net-veined or parallel-veined. 



THE BASE OF A LEAF, 



21 



THE BASE OF A LEAF. 




Look at these white birch leaves. There is one 
large vein in each. This large vein is the mid vein. 

The veins next in size to the 
mid vein are near the petiole. 
They branch out from the mid- 
vein. 

The blade of a white birch 
leaf is wider near its petiole 
than in any other part. This 
is the broad part of the leaf. 

That part of a blade nearest 
the petiole is called the base 
of a leaf. A white birch leaf has a broad base. 

A white birch leaf has its largest veins in its base. 
Helen thinks there must be more sap in these veins 
than in the others. Why does she think so ? 

Helen tries to find another leaf that has a broad base. 

There is a sunflower in the garden. On its top^ 
there is a large blossom. This blossom has a brown 
middle with a bright yellow circle around it. 

The sunflower is so tall, Helen cannot reach its top. 
She can reach some of its leaves. She looks at the 
base of one. It has a broad base. 

Can you name another leaf which has a broad base ? 



22 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



THE APEX OF A LEAF. 



Frank has found many leaves that have broad bases. 
Leaves from a sycamore, a tulip tree, and a poplar tree 
have wide bases. The blade of a linden leaf is wide 
near its petiole. 

Frank has looked at all these leaves. He has 

found large veins 
in the base of each. 
These veins are 
joined to the mid- 
vein near the pet- 
iole. 

A linden leaf has 
the largest part of 
its midvein in the 
base. The smallest part of its midvein is in the apex 
of the leaf. 

That part of a blade next the petiole is called its 
base, and the other end of the blade is its apex. 

The apex of a white birch leaf is a very long point. 
The apex of an ehii leaf is pointed. 

Frank found two kinds of oak trees. He looked at 
a leaf from one of them. It had a pointed apex. 
Leaves on the other tree were not like this. Each 
had a rounded apex. 




SHAPES OF LEAVES. 



23 



Frank will look at a great many leaves to see whether 
their bases are alike. When he is learning about 
the base of a leaf, he will learn about its apex, also. 

Try to find a leaf which has a round apex. Find 
one having a pointed apex. 





>^r^ 



SHAPES OF LEAVES. 

All leaves are not widest at the base. Some are wid- 
est between the base and apex. 

Look at a leaf from a plum 
tree. You will see it does not 
have a broad base like a white 
birch leaf. Its widest place is 
between the base and apex. 

The shape of a plum leaf is oval. A pear leaf is 
oval; also. 




24 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

An el in leaf has a narrow base. There are short 
vems and veinlets near the petiole. These vems are 
not very large. The largest veins in the leaf are above 
these. The \ydest part of an elm leaf is above its base. 

A willow leaf is long and narrow. It has a rounded 
base. The base is not wide. 

A willow leaf is lance-shaped. 

Different shapes of leaves have names. Those 
shaped like a willow leaf are called lanceolate^, or 
lance-shaped. A peach leaf is lanceolate. 

Those shaped like a leaf from a plum tree are called 
ovate leaves. Ovate means oval with the lower end 
largest. It has the outline of a hen's egg, cut through 
lengthwise. 

Of what shape is a leaf of the milkweed? 

Name a leaf that is ovate. 

Name a leaf that is lance-shaped. 

What other name has that shape ? 



IN A PARK. 

Helen and Frank w^ent to walk in a park. They 
knew the names of some trees w^hich they saw there. 
They knew the maple, with its spreading leaves ; and 
the oak^ which had dark green, shining leaves. 



DIFFERENT SHAPES. 25 

They knew the pretty lindens and the elms. One 
elm tree was shaped like a great vase. Another elm 
tree looked like a great umbrella. 

They saw the tall, dark pine trees^, with leaves like 
needles. 

When they came home^, they told their mamma the 
names of trees which they knew. They told her how 
many of each they had seen. 

There were five oaks and seven maples. How many 
oak and maple trees were there ? 

They saw one-half as many elms as oaks and maples 
together. How many elm trees did they see ? 

They counted one-half as many lindens as elms. 
How many lindens did they count ? 

There were as many pine trees as elms^ and two 
more. How many pine trees were there ? 



o>®<c 



DIFFERENT SHAPES. 

Frank has a great many leaves to-day. He took 
some of them from trees^ some from shrubs, and some 
from little plants. 

What a great number he has ! How many different 
shapes ! Every leaf is net-veined, yet they are not 
alike. 



26 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



Each leaf has a midvein from base to apex^ but 
some of the leaves are wide at the base, and some 
are narrow. 

Each leaf has veins that branch out 
from the midvein. Then there are other 
veins and veinlets coming from these. 

In all these leaves the longest veins 
branch out from the base of the midvein. 
But all do not have broad bases. 

There are some in which the long veins 
branch out like a white birch leaf. These 
have broad bases. 

There are others having long veins which 
start at the base. Instead of branching 
out they tin^n and grow towards the apex. 
Such leaves do not have a broad base. They are 
wider near the middle of the blade. 
Can you find a leaf of this kind ? 




o>^o 



A WIDE APEX. 



One day Frank and Helen went to look for net- 
veined leaves. They wanted to find one with a wide 
apex. 

They wanted to find one havinpj short veins in its 



A WIDE APEX. 



27 



base, and longer veins in its apex. They thought a 
leaf of this kind would have a wide apex. 

In mamma's garden, Helen found some small plants. 
All their leaves were growing near the ground. 

Helen looked at one of 
its leaves. She saw it was 
wader at its apex than at its 
base. 

Its longest veins w^ere near 
the apex. All the veins in 
its base were short. The base ^w/ 

was very narrow. Helen 
picked some of these leaves to show to her brother. 

Frank, also, had been looking for a wide apex. 
There were some fine shade trees growing near the 
house. He picked a thick leaf from one of these trees. 

The leaf was dark green on its upper side, and 
brownish on its under side. Frank could easily see its 
veins. Those in the base were short. Those in the 
apex were long. 

Frank and Helen will try to find other leaves shaped 
like these. 




28 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



THE CALLA. 



Helen lias three kinds of leaves. These are violet^ 
white birch ^ and lilac leaves. Each is widest at its 

base^ and is net-veined. 

Frank wants to know whether 
every leaf with a broad base is 
net- veined. 

Helen does not know, so the 
children go to ask mamma. 

Mamma tells them that they 

must use their eyes to find out. 

Helen goes to the greenhouse, 

and Frank takes a ride into 

the country. 

Helen sees a leaf with a 
broad base. It is the leaf of a 
calla. She knows this leaf is parallel-veined. Its 
veins are side by side from the mid vein towards the 
edge of the blade. 

When Helen holds a calla leaf to the light, she sees 
tiny veinlets crossing from one vein to another. They 
do not branch out as in a net-veined leaf. They are 
nearly straight, and run side by side. 

A calla leaf has a broad base and is parallel-veined. 




THE ARROW-HEAD. 



29 



A violet, a white birch, or a lilac leaf has a broad base 
and is net-veined. 

All leaves that have broad bases are not net-veined. 



o>a<o 



THE ARROW-HEAD. 

Frank went to the country to look for parallel- 
veined leaves. He wanted to find some with broad 
bases. 

He went near a small 
pond. The land about this 
place Avas low and wet. It 
was sometimes called a 
marsh and sometimes a 
swamp. 

Here Frank found some 
snow-white flowers. They 
were on a plant which grew 
near the edge of the pond. 

He saw an odd kind of 
leaf on this plant. Its veins did not show very 
plainly. 

When he held it up between his eyes and the light, 
he saw it was parallel- veined. 

The veins were not large. They looked like threads. 




30 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

Most of them started from the petiole and ran side by 
side to the apex. 

A few long veins started from the petiole, but did 
not turn upward towards the apex. They did not 
spread out to make a broad base. They turned down- 
ward. 

The plant that has this kind of leaves is an arrow- 
head. Some people think its leaves look like the 
pomts or heads of arrows. 

Frank found other plants growing in the swamp. 
Many of them had parallel-veined leaves, with broad 
bases. 

He took these leaves home to show to Helen. Now 
Frank knows that every leaf which has a broad base 
is not net-veined. 

A leaf with a broad base may be net-veined or 
parallel- veined. 

A PEACH LEAF. 

A peach leaf is long and narrow. Its mid vein is 
thick and round at the base. At the apex, it is small, 
like a fine thread. 

The longest veins in this leaf are about half way 
between its base and apex. It is a lance-shaped or a 
lanceolate leaf. 



A PEACH LEAF. 



31 



A peacli leaf is a net-veined, lanceolate leaf. Are 
there other lanceolate leaves having net veins ? 

Yes, Frank knows where there are some wild asters. 
The flowers are pale purple. These asters have net- 
veined, lanceolate leaves. 

Helen has found a weed. Mamma calls it ^'lady's- 
thumb." Its leaves are green, and each 
has a dark, heart-shaped spot near the 
middle. The leaves are lanceolate. 

Frank has some lily leaves. They are 
lanceolate, but not net-veined. 

Some lanceolate leaves are net-veined 
and some are parallel-veined. 

Mamma wants Helen and Frank to 
know about the shapes of leaves. She 
wants them to know^ about those which 
grow on the trees, shrubs, or small plants 
near their home. 

If they are in a strange place, and see a leaf like 
one of these, they wall know its name. It Avill seem 
like an old friend. 

They can learn to know a tree or a plant by its leaves. 
Then as soon as they see a leaf, they may know the 
name of the tree, shrub, or plant on which it grew. 

Helen has found some leaves having nearly the same 
shapes, but their veining is not the same. 




32 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

She thinks she will press different kinds of leaves in 
a book. She can look at them when she does not have 
fresh leaves. 

Helen will have a great many pressed leaves. She 
will see whether those of the same shapes have the 
same kinds of veining. 

She can see whether some net-veined leaves have 
shapes like some parallel-veined leaves. 

Where is the widest part of a poplar leaf ? 

Where are the largest veins in a willow leaf? 

Make a drawing of a beech leaf. 



o>^o 



AN APPLE LEAF. 

Last week Helen and Frank went to visit their 
cousins, Sara and Arthur. 

They went out to play under an apple tree. Sara 
and Arthur did not know much about leaves. They 
asked Frank to tell them some things he had learned. 

Frank showed them an apple leaf. Its blade was 
two and one-half inches long. Its petiole was one inch 
long. He told them which part of the leaf was the 
base, and which was the apex. 

Frank showed veins and veinlets in the blade. He 
told Sara and Arthur about the midvein. He said. 



MANY FORMS. 



33 



" It is the vein running from the petiole through the 
middle of the blade." 

Arthur held a leaf between his eyes and the light. 
He could see it was a net-veined leaf, because the veins 
crossed each other like network. 

The leaf which Arthur held 
was dark green on its upper side. 
The color was not so dark on its 
under side. 

Sara found some light green 
leaves growing on the ends of 
twigs. There was something on 
them which looked like wool. 
When Sara rubbed the leaf, this 
wool came off and the leaf was bright green and shining. 

Frank said that an apple leaf is an ovate leaf. 
Arthur knows another kind of tree that has ovate 
leaves. 




o>^o 



MANY FORMS. 

Frank and Helen had a book in which they had 
pressed a great many leaves. These leaves had differ- 
ent forms. 

One day they took these leaved out of their book. 
Mamma told them that each form had a name. 



34 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

Frank and Helen wanted to learn the names of all 
the forms. 

Mamma thought there were more than they could 
remember. She told them it was best to put the 
leaves mto three groups. She helped them do this. 

Into one group they put those leaves that were 
widest between the base and the apex. They had 
apple, plum, quince, willow, horsemint, orange, and 
blueberry leaves. 

Into another group they put the leaves which had 
broad bases. These were catnip, liverwort, birch, vio- 
let, and morning-glory leaves. 

Into the last group they put those leaves which were 
widest near the apex. All they had for this were some 
large, leather-like oak leaves. 

Frank thought that a leaf from the sheep-sorrel 
would belong to the last group. He is going to the 
fields to get one ; then he will know. 

Every day the children will try to add to their 
groups of leaves. When they have a leaf, they will 
put it into the group to which it belongs. 



THE CATALPA. 35 

CORDATE LEAVES. 

Helen has some leaves^ and each has a broad base. 
She sees that the broad bases are not alike. 

The base of a Ulac leaf is wide^ but it is not like the 
base of a white birch leaf. A lilac leaf looks as if a 
piece had been taken out of its base. It is a heart- 
shaped blade. 

Helen has leaves of a violet and a morning-glory. 
These, too, are heart-shaped. A tall sunflower is grow- 
ing near the house. She will look at its leaves to see 
whether they belong to the heart-shaped class. 

Frank knows where there is a linden. He will find 
a great many heart-shaped leaves on that. 

Another name for heart-shaped is cordate. 

Helen and Frank will find many cordate leaves. 
They will make drawings of them. 

Can you find a cordate leaf and make a drawing 
of it? 

THE CATALPA. 

Early one morning, Helen and Frank went out to 
find cordate leaves. It was autumn, and the days 
were cool. 

There were some trees growing near the house. 



36 



LEAVES AND ELOWERS. 



Their leaves had changed from green to red and yel- 
low. On some trees the leaves had changed to brown. 
Many of the red, yellow, and brown leaves had 
fallen. They were lying on the green grass. This 

made the lawn look like a 
j)retty car23et. 

Looking down amongst 
the brown leaves, Helen 
saw one that was large and 
green. It was a beautifnl 
heart-shaped leaf. 

This leaf looked as if it 
had been cut from a piece 
of green silk. It had a 
silky lustre. 

Helen picked it up, and 
then looked to see whence 
it came. 

She saw a large tree. The leaves on it wxre like 
the one she held in her hand. Some of these leaves 
were very large. They were larger than any oak leaf. 
Helen did not know the name of this tree. She 
took a leaf to mamma, and asked its name. 

Mamma told her it was a catalpa tree. Some peo- 
ple call it Indian bean. 

The catalpa has heart-shaped or cordate leaves. 




REVIEW. 37 

REVIEW. 

Name five leaves having^ broad bases. 

Name five which are widest near the middle of 
their blades. 

What leaves are nearly round ? 

Did you ever see a leaf from a tulip tree ? What 
kind of an apex has it ? 

Name a leaf which has a wide apex and a narrow base. 

Tell the name of some leaf which is very long and 
has a narrow base. 

Tell of some leaf which is ovate^ or with an outline 
that is egg-shaped. 

Make a drawing of an ovate leaf. 

Make a drawino; of an elm leaf. 

How do the veins appear on the under side of an 
elm leaf ? 

How do they appear on its upper side ? 

Of what shape is a willow leaf ? 

What kind of veining has it ? 

Make a drawing of some lanceolate leaf. 

Name two lanceolate leaves you haA^e seen. 

What is the shape of a peach leaf ? 

Name four cordate leaves. 

In what part of their blades can you find the 
largest veins ? 



38 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

Are the four cordate leaves which you have named 
net-veined or parallel-veined ? 

Can you find both ' net-veined and parallel-veined 
leaves with heart-shaped bases ? 



MARGINS. 

A violet^ a morning-glory^ and a lilac have cordate 
or heart-shaped leaves. 

The leaf of a violet is not like the leaf of a lilac. Its 
edge looks as if little scallops had been cut all around it. 

A lilac leaf has a whole edge. There are no cuts 
in it. Leaves of a honeysuckle and a morning-glory 
have whole edges like a lilac leaf. 

The edge of a leaf is its margin. 

A catnip leaf is cordate. In its margin there are 
pretty little curves, like those in a violet leaf. Its 
color is not the same as a violet leaf. 

Ground ivy is a common plant. It grows in gardens 
and around houses. You may see it creeping along on 
the ground or up on walls. 

It has a pretty leaf with a heart-shaped base. The 
apex is broad and round. Little scallops are cut 
around its margin. They are like the scallops in the 
edge of a violet leaf. 



CRENATE MARGINS. 



39 



Write the names of five kinds of leaves having whole 
margins. 

Write the names of five kinds of leaves having cut 
margins. 

Find two parallel-veined leaA^es and tell what kind 
of margins they have. 



o>0<o 



CRENATE MARGINS. 

Frank found a pretty leaf. It came from a plant in 
grandma's garden. 

This leaf had an odor like lemons. Grandma told 
Frank that it was called lemon 
balm. 

Margins like those of the vio- 
let^ catnip^ and lemon balm are 
crenate. 

When the margin of a leaf 
has broad;, rounded notches, it is 
crenate. 

Look at geraniums. How many 
kinds have leaves with crenate margins ? You may 
find crenate margins on horseradish leaves. 

Do you know any other leaves which have crenate 
margins ? 




40 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

Make a drawing of some leaf having a crenate 
margin. 

AVhile looking for crenate margins, you may find 
leaves having other kinds of margins. 

The edges of some leaves are cut like the edge of a 
saw, with its sharp teeth pointing forward towards the 
apex. 

Leaves of an elm and an apple tree have margins of 
this kind. Perhaps you may find other leaves with 
edges notched like a saw. 



0^3&^0 



SERRATE MARGINS. 

One day Helen went out to find leaves having cre- 
nate margins. 

She found five different kinds which had broad, 
rounded notches in their margins. 

She looked at each to see whether it was net-veined 
or parallel- veined. Not one of her five leaves had 
parallel veins. 

When she was looking for crenate margins, she saw 
leaves having other kinds of margins. 

She took some leaves from an elm tree. These did 
not have crenate margins. 

The margin of an elm leaf is notched like the 



DENTATE MARGINS. 



41 



teeth of ca saw, with the teeth pomtmg towards its 



apex. 

Helen took some leaves from a cherry tree^ 
some from an apple tree. She 
did not put these leaves with 
those which had crenate margins. 

Leaves from an elm, a cherry, 
and an apple tree have serrate 
margins. 

When the margin of a leaf has 
sharp teeth pointing towards the 
apex, like the teeth of a saw, it is 
saw-toothed or serrate. 



and 




DENTATE MARGINS. 

When summer days are growing shorter, the wild 
asters are in bloom. 

We may find them growing in fields and by the 
roadside. Some are white and some are purple. A 
little spot of yellow is in the centre of each flower. 

Helen likes to gather these pretty flowers. One 
day she gathered a large bouquet for her mamma. 

While she was picking flowers, she looked at some 
aster leaves. She saw their margins were neither 
crenate nor serrate. They were toothed or notched 



42 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



Some margins had sharp teeth, which did not point 
forwards. They did not point towards the apex, like 
teeth in a serrate margin. They pointed outwards 

from the middle of the leaf. 
These margins were dentate. 
When the margin of a 
leaf has sharp teeth point- 
ing outwards, it is dentate. 

The leaf of a dandelion 
has a dentate margin. There 
is another plant which has 
yellow flowers, and its leaves have dentate margins. 
The name of this plant is hawkweed. It grows in 
dry and rocky fields. 

If you use your eyes, you will find many other 
leaves having dentate margins. 

Look at the veining of leaves with dentate margins. 
Are they net-veined or parallel- veined ? 




o^^o 



OTHER MARGINS. 

The edges of leaves are not alike. Helen has 
found some that are like aster leaves, with dentate 
margins. She has seen others with whole or entire 
margins, like a honeysuckle or a lilac leaf. She 
knows some leaves that have crenate margins, and 
some that have dentate margins. 



OTHER MARGINS. 



48 






^. 



Helen has learned about other margms. The long 
leaves of a dock have wavy margms. Some leaves 
have crisped or cm^led margins. 

Sometimes leaves that grow on the same plant do not 
have the same kind 
of margins. Helen 
once found three 
kinds of margins on 
the leaves of one 
plant. It w^as the 
Iberis or candytuft. ^ ' 
Its leaves had en- ^^"'^^^-^^^ 
tire margins^ wavy \ _ 
margins^ and ser- 
rate margins. 

She would often 
find a single leaf 
with tw^o kinds of 
notches on its mar- 
gin. To give a 
name to these margins^ she would put together the 
names of the different notches. 

Leaves like these were on mamma's geranium. 
Helen looked at one^ and saw a part of the margin 
was crenate and a part of it w^as dentate. It was 
a crenate-dentate margin. 




44 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



THE HEPATTCA. 



Helen's mamma has a garden which she calls her 

wild garden. She gives it this name because all the 

plants in it were brought from the woods and fields. 

In this garden there is hepatica or liverwort. 

Early in spring the hepatica has pretty blue flowers. 

When the plant is in blos- 
som, there are some of last 
year's leaves on it. Leaves 
stay on the hepatica all win- 
ter. 

One day Helen took a leaf 
from the hepatica. It seemed 
to grow from the root of the 
plant. 

This leaf was thick and 
tough, like leather. It was a net-veined leaf. 

The base of the blade was broad, and on each side 
of the petiole there were curves. The base of the 
blade looked as if a piece had been cut out of it. 

There were two other cuts in the leaf blade, one 
on each side. If there were no cuts in the blade, it 
would be shaped like a triangle. 




LOBES. 



45 



LOBES. 



Helen found other leaves whicli had deep cuts in 
their margins. These cuts would reach about half- 
way to the midvein. 

These cuts were always between the large veins 
of a leaf and never across them. 

Is there a name for the parts of a leaf that are 
between the cuts ? 

Helen's mamma told her that the parts of a blade 
between the cuts are called lobes. Sometimes a leaf 
has both large lobes and small lobes. 

Frank gathered some oak leaves. He also had some 
maple, sassafras, gr^pe? currant, and hepatica leaves. 
Some of these had large lobes, and some had small lobes. 

All leaves do not have the 
same number of lobes. A maple 
leaf is five-lobed. The hepat- 
ica is three-lobed. 

Some leaves on a sassafras 
tree have three lobes. The 
blades of these leaves are shaped 
like a wedge. Other leaves on 
the same tree are ovate and have an entire margin. 

Helen has seen leaves which have rounded lobes. 
She has seen them with pointed lobes. 




46 LEAVES Am) FLOWERS. 

The space between two lobes is called a sinus. 
Sinuses are not alike^, because in some leaves the lobes 
spread far apart;, in others the lobes are close together. 

If lobes spread far apart, a leaf has shallow sinuses. 
If lobes do not spread far apart, a leaf has deep sinuses. 

Look at some lobed leaf. Are the sinuses shallow or 
deep ? 

Tell the name of some tree which has lobed leaves. 

Tell the name of a common shrub which has lobed 
leaves. 

EEVIEW. 

What is the margin of a leaf ? 

What kind of a margin has a laurel leaf ? A horse- 
radish leaf ? A willow leaf ? A tulip leaf ? An In- 
dian corn leaf? 

What is an entire margin ? A serrate margin ? A 
crenate margin ? A dentate margin ? 

Name some vine which has leaves with dentate 
margins. 

Name some tree whose leaves have serrate margins. 

Name a garden plant whose leaves have curled mar- 
gins. 

What small plant in a greenhouse or a flower garden 
has leaves with wavy margins ? 



MULLEIN AND THISTLE. 47 

How many lobes lias a sassafras leaf ? A cucumber 
leaf? A hop leaf? 

What are the smuses of a blade ? 
When does a blade have deep sinuses ? 
When are the sinuses shallow ? . I 

Draw an oak leaf. 



o>@<o 



MULLEIN AND THISTLE. 

One day Helen and Frank were riding in the coun- 
try. By the roadside they saw 
a plant which had a tall stem. 

The children knew the name 
of this common plant. It was 
a mullein. It had golden yel- 
low flowers. These flowers 
grew near the top of the stem 
and close to it. 

The leaves on this plant 
were a very light green. They 
looked as if they were cov- 
ered with wool. When Helen 
touched one of them^ she 
thought of w^oollen cloth. They 
were woolly on both sides. 




48 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



The midvein of a leaf was large. The lower part 
of it was growing on the tall stem. The bases of the 
leaves grew downward on the stem or stalk. This 
made the stalk look as if it had wings. 

Helen called it a winged stalk. She has seen other 

leaves grow to a stalk in 
this way. Such leaves are 
decurrent. 

Frank saw another plant 
which had decnrrent leaves. 
It grew by the roadside^ 





and had large, purple flowers. These flowers were 
very pretty, but Frank did not touch them. There 
were too many sharp spines on them. 

The leaves of this plant were decurrent. Their 
bases grew downward on the stalk. Along their mar- 
gins there were sharp spines. It was a thistle. 



AUTUMN. 49 

Both thistle and mullein have decurrent leaves. 

In some gardens you may see a plant having pale 
yellow flowers. Its leaves are decurrent. Can you tell 
the name of this plant ? 

AUTUMN. 

A sultry summer had passed^ and the cool days of 
autumn had come. The morning sun often shone on 
blades of grass glittering with white frost. 

Leaves on the trees were changing from green to 
red;, yelloW; and brown. They would fall and rustle 
on the ground. Every day some of them came off. 
Sometimes a gust of wind would send a great many 
down at one time. 

Near the home of Helen and Frank was a small 
hickory tree. It was covered with pretty yellow leaves. 
There was a strong wind one night, and the next day 
all the yellow leaves were on the ground. 

One day Helen and Frank went out to gather some 
bright-colored leaves for mamma. They found the 
yellow leaves of a birch and a poplar. They had a 
large bunch of sumach leaves. These were red. 

They brought home branches of red maple leaves. 
They had yellow leaves from a hickory and a few 
yellow leaves from a chestnut tree. Helen had a small 
beech twig. 



50 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

Mamma thanked Helen and Frank for the leaves. 
She said that her children had learned a great many 
things about them^ and now they must learn some- 
thing about twigs or stems. 

She gave a branch of maple to Frank and asked him 
to take off a leaf. 

How easily it came off ! He scarcely touched it^, 
when it dropped away from the twig. 

" What do you see at the place where the leaf came 
off?" asked mamma. 

'^ The petiole of the leaf covered a tiny knob or 
lump." 

" That little knob is a leaf bud. Some time we will 
learn about the buds on a twig. 

" Look at the bark on a place that was covered by a 
petiole. Is it the same color as the bark on other parts 
of the twig?" 

" No^ mamma; the color is lighter, with a dark line 
around it." 

^^That light spot is called a scar. Every leaf that 
falls leaves a scar to mark the spot where it grew on 
the twig. 

" Look at some of these twigs which have no leaves. 
Can you tell where leaves grew on them ? " 

^^Yes/' said Frank. "1 see scars, that mark the 
spots where leaves fell off." 



NODES AND INTERNODES. 



51 



Helen, who was looking at a beech twig, said, " The 
leaves of a beech do not come off so easily as maple 
leaves." 



NODES AND INTERNODES. 

The places on a stem from which leaves grow out 
are called nodes. 

When you know how many nodes are on a twig, you 
know how many leaves have growm out from that twig. 

Spaces on a twig between the 
nodes are called internodes. 

Helen measured the internodes of 
a long twig. She found some spaces 
were longer than others. 

She measured around a twig. 
She found the internodes were not 
all the same size around. 

Those at the base of a twig were 
larger than those near its apex. 

Helen and Frank measured the 
internodes on maple and on chest- 
nut twdgs. 

They found nodes and internodes 
on the twigs of some trees that 
were growing near their home. 




52 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

On some of these twigs^ they counted the nodes. 
They measured the internodes and found they were 
not alike. 

Can you brmg some twigs to the class to show nodes 
and internodes ? 

Measure the internodes. 

Show some twigs on which the internodes are long. 

When all the leaves had fallen from a tree^ Helen 
could tell where they had grown last summer. 

On the twigs she could see spots where the petioles 
came off. These spots were the scars. Just above 
each scar she could see a very small leaf bud. 

Before a leaf fell, its petiole covered a tiny leaf bud. 
The leaf bud w^as covered so as to keep it from harm 
w^hile it was very tender. Next year it will grow to be 
a twig. 

When the warm spring days come, she may see a 
leaf bud growing larger and larger. Then it will open, 
and she may watch a growing twig. 



o>^o 



GATHERING TWIGS. 

One pleasant, sunny day in spring, mamma, Frank, 
and Helen went to walk in a park. 

There they saw trees which had been bare all winter. 



GATHERING TWIGS. 53 

A few dead leaves were clinging to some of the 
branches. 

" Mamma^ when shall we see green leaves on these 
trees?" asked Frank. 

" On some of the trees, you may see leaves m a few 
weeks. They will come from leaf buds. 

^^ To-day, we will gather some twigs. They will 
help you to learn more about leaf buds. 

" Frank may take a twig from this tree near the 
path. Do you know what kind of a tree it is?" 

"1 know/' said Helen, '-for last October I found 
some pretty red and yellow leaves under it. It is a 
ma23le tree." 

^'' Here is an oak tree," said Frank, ^-and here are 
some acorns on the ground. I will ojet an oak twior." 

^'' This is a hickory tree," said mamma; ^^ Frank may 
gather some twigs from a hickory." 

Frank breaks off some twigs. He gives them to 
Helen. Then he runs to an elm tree. He breaks 
twigs froin an elm and a horse-chestnut. 

" I know where there is a willow tree. The twigs 
grow down so near the ground that I can reach them. 
There are a great many twigs lying on the ground 
under the tree." 



54 LEAVES AND FLOWEES. 

HOW BUDS ARE PLACED. 

Frank brings home a bundle of twigs. He has 
taken them from maple trees and from horse-chestnut 
trees. Some grew on oaks and some on elms. He 
puts the twigs on a table. 

Helen has gathered some twigs which she puts with 
Frank's. She has hickory, willow, and lilac twigs. 

Mamma asks the children to look at all of these 
twigs, then tell her something about them. 

" I can see buds on all the twigs," said Frank. 
" On some they look like little knobs. They are not 
the same size, some are larger than others." 

^^ Almost every one is cone-shaped," said Helen. 
" They look like the bills of some birds. Sometimes 
two buds are close together. Sometimes the 
buds are alone." 

" You may see leaf buds growing in two 
ways on a stem or twig. Sometimes they are 
in pairs, and sometimes they grow singly. 
Can you find a twig on which the buds are in 
pairs : 

^^Yes, mamma, here is a lilac. The lilac 
buds are in pairs." 
"Are buds on a maple twig single or in pairs?" 
asks mamma. 




HOW BUDS ARE PLACED. 



55 



Frank cannot find a maple twig, but Helen finds 
one and says, " Maple buds are in pairs." 

Helen and Frank look at other twigs on the 
table. They find only one which has its buds 
in pairs. This is a horse-chestnut. 

Mamma tells them they may find many trees 
and shrubs which have their buds in pairs. 
When buds are in pairs, they are opposite. 

Frank looks at the other twigs on the table. ^r^ 
All have single buds ; they are not opposite on / I 
the twigs. 

When leaf buds are not opposite, they are alternate. 
An elm has alternate leaf buds ; so have 
an oak and a hickory. 

When buds are alternate, they seem to 
follow after one another along the twig. 
They begin at different distances on the 
stem. 

When buds are opposite, they stand base 
to base on a stem. 

There are buds at the ends of twigs. 
Mamma says that these end buds are called 
terminal buds. 
Can you find a terminal bud on some twig ? 
Find a twig that has opposite buds, and one that has 
alternate buds. 




56 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

If buds on a twig are alternate, the leaves on that 
twig will be alternate. If buds on a stein are opposite^ 
the leaves will be in pairs. 

Are leaves on a maple tree alternate or opposite ? 
How do they grow on an elm tree ? 



o>yt^o 



ABOUT BUD SCALES. 

All winter the leaf buds are carefully covered. 
Jack Frost cannot harm them. 

The cold snows and rains cannot get at 
the little leaves within them. Each leaf bud 
is closely covered with scales. 

Look at the leaf bud of a hickory. See 
those little scales folded so tightly over it. 
There is no place where the rain can get in 
to harm the tender leaves. 

The scales of a hickory bud look like 

velvet. In winter a hickory leaf bud wears 

a veh^et coat. Little tender leaves are rolled 

up inside this velvet coat. 

In spring, when days are long and bright, the little 

leaves grow very fast. Then they push off their velvet 

wraps. They do not need them when warm weather 

comes. 



ABOUT BUD SCALES. 57 

The leaves grow away from their velvet coats or 
scales. Very soon these scales wither and fall off. 
When leaves have grown large and strong, we cannot 
see the scales which covered them. 

x\ll leaf buds are not like those of a hickor3\ All 
do not have velvet coats to keep their yonng leaves 
Avarm in winter. 

Some trees and plants grow where it is always 
warm. These have buds without scales. 

Trees that grow in cold climates have leaf buds cov- 
ered with scales. Scales protect the tender leaves 
through the winter months. AYhen warm weather 
comes, they are no longer needed ; then they fall off. 

The scales or coats of most leaf buds have soft lin- 
ings. A soft lining is next to the tender young leaves. 

Some linings are smooth, like satin. Scales of other 
buds are lined with soft, fine hairs. AYoolly linings 
are in some scales. Do you know why scales have 
such soft linings ? 

A bud covers its young leaves closely with scales to 
keep them from cold and wet. Many kinds of buds 
have a covering outside their scales. 

Some buds have coverings like wool. Others are 
sticky, as if covered with a gum. Many kinds of buds 
are covered with something that looks like wax. Snow 
and rain cannot get through these coverings. 



58 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

WATCHING LEAF BUDS. 

Helen and Frank want to know how leaves come 
out of a leaf bud. A bud may be very small, but the 
leaves that grow from it will be large. How are large 
leaves kept in small buds ? 

There is a horse-chestnut tree near their home. 
Mamma tells them to watch the buds on that. 

She says : " The buds are growing larger and larger 
every day. Very soon leaves will be on the tree. If 
you watch them closely for a few weeks, you will learn 
a great deal about them. 

'' Every day you must tell some new thing you have 
seen. I will give each a little book. In it you can 
write what you learn about buds and leaves. 

'-' A horse-chestnut tree is large^ and has many buds. 
Do not trv to watch them all. You will learn a great 
deal more if you watch only a few. 

" Look first for two or three very large buds. When 
you have found some of the largest on the tree, tie a 
white thread around the twig near them. 

" Next look for some very small leaf buds. Tie a 
black thread around the twig near these. Do not tie 
the threads tightly, for that will cut the bark and 
harm the twig. 

" These threads will help you to find the buds Avhen 



WATCHING LEAF BUDS. 59 

you wish to look at them. You must watch these 
buds to notice the changes from day to day." 

The children are pleased to have mamma helj) them. 
They want to learn more about leaf buds and leaves. 
They take some threads and go out to tie them around 
twigs. 

On one twig they see four very large buds. They 
put a white thread on this. Then they find one hav- 
ing six small buds. ^^' We will tie a black thread here," 
said Frank. 

Helen can reach a twig which has a great many 
buds on it. Some are large and some are small. She 
ties both black and white threads around this. She 
wants to see whether all these buds will open at the 
same time. 

The children tie threads on a lilac bush and on a 
willow tree. They will watch the buds on these. 

Mamma tells them they must not forget to look at 
CA^ery part of a bud. Every day they must look at its 
tip to see how it changes. 

Mamma wants them to make a drawing of the same 
bud each day for two weeks, to write the date on 
each drawing, and to keep it till next summer. After 
leaf buds are gone, and when leaves have come, they 
will like to look at therr drawing's. 



60 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT. 

Many times in a day Helen and Frank went out to 
look at leaf buds on the horse-chestnut tree. 

When Frank tied threads on the twigs^ he found 
something sticky covering the buds. The lilac and 
willow buds were not sticky, like those on the horse- 
chestnut. 

Day by day the buds grew and the sticky matter on 
them became softer. It was like a varnish. 

One day Helen saw the scales on a bud had moved 
a little. Now the bud would open and show her what 
w^as inside. 

First she saw something that looked like brown 
wool. The scales spread farther apart, and this brown 
wool came out more and more. 

Then she saw it was a leaf peeping out^ 
but it was almost hidden in its woolly wrap- 
per. It Avas closely covered with a woolly 
wrapper, as if to keep out the cold. 

When it had grown far out of the bud, 

and had been warmed by the sun, it began to 

open into parts. Then Helen saw a pretty green color. 

The leaf was wrinkled. When it opened into parts, 

there were seven wrinkled parts. These were to make 

a great horse-chestnut leaf. 




THE LILAC 61 

Frank said they were wrinkled because they had 
been folded away so tightly all winter. 

The warm sun made the little leaves grow larger 
and larger each day. The spring winds soon began to 
shake out their wrinkles. 

When the leaves first unfolded, they were very ten- 
der. One day there was a strong wind and many 
leaves were torn by it. 

As the days became warmer, the leaves grew larger 
and their wrinkles came out. It was not long before 
they were great, spreading leaves that would remain 
all summer. 

Their color became darker and darker every day. 
They did not have the same bright green as when 
they first unfolded. 

The veins grew larger and became more woody ; 
then the leaves were strono;. These were the sj-reat 
leaves that make a cooling shade in hot summer days. 



o-^o 



THE LILAC. 

All the spring da3^s, Helen and Frank were busy. 
They were watching the twigs on trees and shrubs. 

A bright sun and warm showers made the little leaf 
buds grow. Lilac and willow buds grew fast. 



62 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 




One sunny day the scales on lilac buds 
began to open, so as to let out the young 
leaves. There were many little leaves 
folded up in each bud. 

When the scales on a bud had opened 
far enough, Helen saw two little lilac 
leaves. Their color was not like horse- 
chestnut leaves. They came out without 
any soft wool covering. 

The first or outside leaves seemed to be 
folded around others in the bud. The out- 
side leaves must spread 
out to make room for 
others to unfold. 

Warm winds and a 
bright sun made the lilac 
leaves unfold. Then they 
grew very fast and their 
wrinkles came out. 

The leaves grew so 
fast that soon they were 
larger than their winter home. In a 
few hours they were too large to be 
crowded back into their small winter 
home. 

Frank said that this was the season 




>i 



HOW LEAVES ARE FOLDED. 



63 



for a lilac bush to unfold its summer clothing and to 
smooth out its wrinkles. 

Only a few days after Helen had seen the first buds 
open, the lilac bush was covered with leaves. Flower 
buds, too, were growing on the lilac bush. They had 
been wrapped up inside the leaf buds. 



o^^^o 



HOW LEAVES ARE FOLDED. 

Frank and Helen like to watch leaves as they unfold. 
They find that all leaves are not folded in the same 
way. Each tree and shrub has its own way for folding 
or rolling its young leaves. 

There are many ways 
for folding or rolling leaves 
in a leaf bud. 

In some buds the baby 
leaves are rolled tightly^ 
and Helen can see only 
one edge of the blade. Be- 
fore the leaf unrolls it looks like a little horn. 

Again, Helen finds some leaves rolled so that she can 
see only the under surface of the blade. On another 
tree or shrub she finds them rolled so that the upper 
surface of the blade is on the outside. 




64 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 




Some leaves are folded like fans. Others are folded 
along the midvein, and one-half the blade is placed on 
the other half. 

Frank and Helen are very busy these 

spring days. Every day they write in their 

books. They write names of trees on Avhich 

new leaves are coming out. They write 

how these leaves are folded or rolled. 

They write about the color of leaves^ and how they 

look when they first come out. They know how buds 

open on a birch and a willow ; how they open on a 

cherry, a maple, and a tulip tree. 

Frank and Helen watch some ferns unroll. When 
the fern leaves come up out of the cold ground, they 
are snugly wrapped in their blankets. Helen 
says each leaf makes her think of the spirals 
on a snail's shell. 

The children make drawings of buds and 
leaves, and can tell a great deal about them. 
Can you tell how a currant leaf unfolds ? 
Watch a maple or a birch when the buds 
are opening. See whether the leaves are 
rolled or folded. 

Look at the opening buds on an oak, to see 
whether the leaves have been packed like those in the 
buds of apple trees. 



PARTS OF A FLOWER. 



65 



roll- ' 



Did you ever watch a violet leaf to see how it un- 
s ? Are its margins rolled 
inward or outward ? 

Frank has learned that some 
leaves unfold earlier than others. 
Some young leaves can unroll 
in less time than others. 




^3>^0 



PARTS OF A FLOWER. 

When spring days come, the sun is warm and bright, 
but almost every day clouds will come to hide it. 
Almost every day there is a gentle shower. 

The rain does not last a long time. In a little while 
the clouds break away, and the sun beams out as 
brightly as before. 

Spring sunshine and spring showers put new life 
into all things. They make the little leaf buds swell 
and open. 

Bright sunshine and warm rains will open another 
kind of buds. They will make the flower buds show 
their pretty colors. 

On pleasant spring days, Frank and Helen like to be 
out of doors. They like to watch the buds as they 
unfold. Every day they find something new. 



66 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

A few days ago they saw the first leaves coming out 
on a cherry tree. Then they saw just one little blos- 
som. Now the cherry tree is white with flowers. 

Frank takes some of these flowers to his mamma. 
He wants to learn about them. He knows many things 
about leaves, now he wants to know about flowers. 

Mamma tells him that flowers have different parts. 
If he wants to know about them, he must carefully 
study each part. 

Frank looks at the part outside a cherry blossom, 
and says, " Here* are five little green 
leaves outside some white ones. What 
are they called, mamma ? " 

'' These are the five sepals of the flower ; 
all together they are called the calyx. 
" The calyx of a flower is the outside 
circle of leaves. The word calyx means cup. 
" When you see a flower, look for its calyx." 
Frank finds a circle of white leaves next 
inside the calyx, or circle of green leaves. 
There are five of these white leaves. 
They are called petals. All together 
they look like a round white dish. 

These white petals are not quite smooth. Each has 
a wrinkle in it. The petals are not so thick as the 
sepals ; they are thin and soft. 





PARTS OF A FLOWER. 



0/ 



w 



These white petals are the corona of a cherry blos- 
som. The corolla of a flower may be red, yellow, or 
blue. The corolla of a cherry blossom is white. 

The thin leaves which are within a calyx make the 
corolla of a flower. 

Next to the corolla are many little parts. These 
look like short threads with yellow tops. 

In a cherry flower there are a great 
many of these short threads. They are called stamens. 

Stamens are slender^ thread-like parts next inside 
the corolla. 

In the middle of a cherry blossom is a larger 
JK thread. It does not have a yellow top. like the 
stamens. This is a pistil. 

The pistil is in the middle of a flower. 

The parts of a flower are calyx, corolla, stamens^ 
and pistil. 



fi 




68 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

The Cherry Blossom. 

Little cherry blossom 

Lived up in a tree, 
And a very pretty 

Little thing was she ; 
Clad all through the winter 

In a coat of brown, 
Warm she was though living 

In a northern town. 

But one sunny morning, 

Thinking it was May, 
^^I'll not wear,^^ said blossom, 

^^This brown dress to-day.^' 
So she let her brown dress 

Drop and blow away, 
Putting on a white one. 

That fine sunny day. 



Anonymous. 



o>^o 



THE CALYX. 

The outside circle of green leaves is the calyx of 
a flower, or its flower cup. Like a cup it holds the 
tender flower when in bud. 

The calyx of a cherry blossom has five leaf-like 
parts. These are called sepals. 

Look at many kinds of flowers to see whether their 
sepals are like those of a cherry blossom. 



THE CALYX. 69 

When we want to know whether leaves are alike^ 
we look at then* colors and shapes. We look at their 
veinings and their bases. We see whether the apex of 
one is like that of another. 

We must look at sepals in the same way. We 
must notice all these things, because sepals are very 
much like true leaves. 

The apex of each sepal in a cherry blossom is a 
sharp point. Sometimes these fine points are rolled 
backward towards the stem of the flower. When the 
white parts of the flower fall off, the sepals will turn 
brown. 

In some flowers the sepals are separate^ as in a 
cherry blossom. Then one can be pulled off without 
disturbing another. In other flowers, like a 
scarlet catchfly, the sepals groAV together. 

In the blossom of a pink you will see the 
sepals grown together. Each sepal has a pointed 
apex. Together these make five points or teeth 
on the top of the flower cup. We call it a five-toothed 
calyx. 

Perhaps each sepal of a calyx has a rounded apex. 
If these grow together their entire length, the edg^ 
of the calyx is crenate. You know what crenate 
means. 

The teeth or parts in the edge of a calyx show 




70 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

how many sepals have grown together. Where five 
sepals are jomed, the calyx is five-parted. If only 
four sepals are jomed, it is a four-parted calyx. 

If sepals have grown together, a whole calyx may 
be taken off at one time. The whole calyx of a sage 
blossom may be taken off at once. Try to find other 
flowers whose calyx may be taken off like this. 

The sepals of a flower are not always the 
same length. They are not always the same 
size. One may be larger or smaller than an- 
other. Then we say the calyx is not regular. 
Did you ever see a flower without a calyx ? You 
have seen the buds on a poppy. You did not see the 
bright red petals because they were inside a green 
calyx. When the bud opened into a flower, the green 
sepals fell off ; then the flower had no calyx. Do you 
know another flower which loses its calyx as soon as it 
opens ? 

THE COROLLA. 

The flower of a cherry has a white corolla. Each 
part is called a petal. 

Take off one petal to see its shape. Petals 
have two parts, a limb and a claw. The 
limbs of most petals are not so thick as the claws. 




THE COROLLA. 71 

When we look at petals of diftereiit tioAvers we find 
the limbs are not alike. Some limbs have entire mar- 
gins^ like the petals of a buttercup or a rose. Some- 
times the limbs of petals have toothed margins, like 
those of a pink. Others are fringed like a ragged- 
robin or fringed gentian. 

Wavy margins, crenate margins, and lobed margins 
are found on petals as well as leaves. 

We have seen chickweed growing in our gardens^ or 
by the roadside, or spreading over waste ground. It 
grows in almost any place. We have even seen it 
betAveen bricks on a sidewalk. 

Its bright green leaves will tempt us to gather some. 
Then we can see its pretty white blossom. Its petals 
are cut or cleft. Do you think it has ten petals? It 
has only five, but they are cut or cleft so deeply that 
each petal looks like two. 

There is another weed which has white, two-cleft 
petals. It is the bladder-campion. This weed is 
common in New England. There the children call it 
" snappers/' because, when they strike the 
calyx on their hands, it bursts with a sharp 
sound. 

A claw is the lower part of a petal. In a 
rose or a buttercup the claws are short. In some 
flowers the claws of petals are long. Look at a bios- 




72 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

som from a wild mustard;, a sweet rocket^ or a pink. 
The petals of these blossoms have long claws. 

What kind of claws do you see in a nasturtium ? 
Are they short, or are they long ? 

Petals are almost always some other color than 
green. A buttercup has yellow petals^ and those of a 
harebell are blue. You can think of many flowers that 
have pink, red^ or purple petals. 

Sometimes j)^tals are as thick as the sepals of a 
flower. Not many petals are as thick as the green 
leaves of the plant on which they grow. 



KINDS OF COROLLA. 

A wild rose has five jDctals. These have broad limbs 
and short claws. They spread out like the sepals. 
They do not grow so as to cover the 
sepals, but they cover the spaces be- 
tween them. 

Take a flower from an apple tree, a 
peach tree, or a cherry tree. The petals 
are placed like the petals of a rose. 
The flowers of a strawberry, a blackberry, or a rasp- 
berry have petals growing in the same way. There are 
a great many flowers having corollas shaped like a rose. 




KINDS OF COROLLA. 



73 




Another kind of corolla is in the shape of a cross. 
Look at a flower from a wild mustard 
or from a sweet rocket. Each blossom 
has four petals. 

The petals of these flowers have long 
claws and spreading limbs. They are 
placed so as to form a cross. What other flower has 
a corolla shaped like a cross ? 
Pinks have petals wdth long claws^ 
. but they do not form a cross. A 
double pink has a great many petals. 
A single pink has only five petals. 
These are set in a long calyx tube, 
and are spreading at the top. 

We often find a purple flow^er in 
corn-fields. It is the corn cockle. 
Farmers do not like it ; they call it 
a troublesome w^eed. Its corolla has 
five petal Sj and they are placed like 
those of a pink. 

You can find other flowers whose 

petals are placed like those of a pink. 

The corolla of a sweet pea has 

five petals. They are not alike in 

shape or size. 

These petals have names. The upper one is the 





74 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 




bell. 



largest. It is called the standard or the banner. The 
two side petals are the wings. You find the two 
lower petals are partly joined ; these are called the 
keel. 

A corolla like this is not regular. Flowers of a 
locust, a bean, a pea, or a Wistaria are called irregular. 
You have seen flowers whose sepals had grown to- 
gether. You can also find those having petal r^ 
grown together. Then a corolla is in one piece^ 
instead of being in parts. You 
know how a bluebell looks with 
its five -cleft or five -toothed 
Its corolla is in one piece. 
The corolla of a morning-glory is 
in one piece. It looks as if the claws 
of the petals had grown together, 
to make a tube. The limb or border 
opens like a funnel. The corolla is funnel-form. What 

other flower have you seen 
that is shaped like this ? 

At the top of a slender 
tube, the limbs of petals may 
bend to ]nake a flat, spread- 
ing border. A corolla of this 
kind is salver -form. The 
corolla of a phlox is salver-form. 





KINDS OF COROLLA. 



75 



Spreading borders sometimes have deep cuts in 
them. The corolla of a lilac is salver-form, with four 
deep cuts in the border. It is a four-parted border. 

You may think the corolla of a lilac has four petals. 
bm if you try to pull one out they will all come off 
together. All the petals are united, making a slender 
tube below the l)order. 

Another floAver which is salver-form is the peri- 



winkle. It oi^ows on a trailinu' 



plant that has evergreen leav 
Its bright blue llowers open ear 
in the spring. 





AVhen a border does not spread out. or when the 
lunbs are short, the flower is tubular, or like a tube. 



76 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

THE PERIANTH. 

Sometimes we may want to speak of all the flower 
leaves of a blossom. Then we say the perianth of a 
flower. The sepals and petals together make a perianth. 

A yellow buttercup or a blue harebell has a green 
calyx. Do you think the calyx of a flower is always 
green ? Not always ; a flower may have a calyx that 
is colored like its corolla. When a calyx and a corolla 
are nearly alike, the word perianth is used for both. 

A Japan lily in our garden, or a yellow lily in the 
fields, has no green calyx. Have you ever seen a lily 
bud just starting to grow ? Perhaps it had a greenish 
color at first, but before the flower opened the green 
color was gone. 

You have seen buds on a tiger lily. Their outside 
leaves are a dull orange color. Watch them as they 
unfold, and you will find other leaves within. 

The three colored leaves on the outside make the 
calyx. There are three colored leaves wdthin to make 
the corolla. These six colored leaves make a perianth. 

A tiger lily has a six-parted perianth. Look at the 
inside of the perianth. Both sepals and petals are 
marked with black or dark brown spots. They roll 
backward as if to show their beauty. The perianth 
opens to the sunshine and light. 



THE PERIANTH. 77 

Summer is the -season for lilies. A few will come in 
the spring, but most of them blossom in summer. 
They may be found on hills, in fields, and in meadows. 
Some haye bright-colored perianths^ that can be seen a 
great way off. 

Frank found a pretty red lily. It was growing 
among sweet-fern and blueberry bushes. Its orange- 
red perianth was spotted at the base. It looked like a 
bell standing on its handle. 

Another pretty lily grows in meadows. Frank found 
one where some men were cuttino^ meadow OTass. Its 
pretty yellow flowers were shaped like bells. Inside 
they were spotted with dark red. This plant did not 
hold its bells up. like the red lily. They were hanging 
from the top of a tall stem. One stem had fiye bells 
hanging from its top. 

Another hanging lily is white. You haye seen it 
growing in gardens. Its perianth is shaped more like 
a trumpet than like a bell. Haye you seen the ridges 
on both sepals and petals ? Are the sepals and petals 
shaped alike ? Look at other lilies to see the shape 
of their perianths. 

Some early spring flowers haye pretty colored peri- 
anths. Where you see a colored bud, you may expect 
to see a colored perianth after it opens. 



78 LEAVES AJS^D FLOWERS. 

Lilies. 

In my garden there are lilies, 

Lilies swinging to and fro, 
Garden lilies, rosy lilies, 

Lilies white as drifting snow. 

Here the blazing tiger lily. 

There the evening lily pale ; 
And in the corners, dark and shady. 

Little lilies of the vale. 

In my garden there are lilies ; 

And the wild bees come and go, 
Seeking honey from my lilies 

Swinging slowly to and fro. 

— Ethel Clifford. 

STAMENS. 

Within the perianth of a flower you can find its 
stamens. Their little threads are often white^ but 
sometimes they are colored. 

In some flowers the threads of stamens are coarse. 
In other flowers they are very fine ; they are almost 
as fine as hairs. 

You will find that all flowers do not have the same 
number of stamens. In a lilac blossom there are two 
stamens. Some flowers have four stamens. You w^ill 
find six stamens in a tulip. 



STAMENS. 



79 



When YOU look at the stamens m a wild rose or a 
buttercup, you find a great many. 

There seems to l^e a little head on the top of each 
thread. If you look at these heads in different flowers^ 
you will find large heads^ small heads^ flat heads, long 
heads, and round lieads. 

These heads are called anthers. They are on the 
tops of the thread-like parts. Some stamens have 
A^ellow anthers. Others have brown, purple, red, or 
white anthers. 

You have seen a flower which has l^rown anthers. 
These brown anthers are shaped like boats. Can you 
think of a flower that has long anthers ? 





You know a flower that has yellow anthers, and 
another flower which has white anthers. What are 
the names of these flowers ? 



80 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

After a flower has been opened a while there is a 
kind of dust on its anthers. This dust is fine, like 
flour. It is pollen. 

If jou touch the anthers of a flower that has been 
opened a short time, the pollen comes off easily. 
Pollen often falls on petals where it can be seen. 
There it looks like a brown, white, or yellow dust. 

After pollen falls from the anthers, a flower begins 
to fade. Some time you will learn the use of pollen. 

Stamens are not all alike. We find both long and 
short stamens. Even in the same flower, some stamens 
will be short and some will be long. 

Did you ever see a flower in which there were both 
long and short stamens ? Take the petals from the 
flower of a wild mustard. There you will see four 
long stamens and two short ones. Look at the little 
white alyssum that is found in gardens. What kind of 
stamens do you find ? 

Sometimes we find flowers having very long stamens. 
They will reach out far beyond the border of the corolla. 

In July the swamp pink or swamp honeysuckle 
opens its fragrant flowers. Then we can see the long 
stamens beyond its corolla. 

Some tubular flowers have stamens reaching out 
beyond the tube. Other tubular flowers have their 
stamens hidden in the tube. 



MORE ABOUT STAMENS. 



8i 



In some flowers, the stamens look as if they were 
bent or broken. In others they are twisted. Some 
flowers have flat stamens. 

The Dentzia is a common shrub in our gardens. A 
Deutzia has white flowers shaped like bells. If you 
look at one of the stamens, you will see it is flattened. 
On its top there are three points. A golden anther is 
on the middle point. 



o>@4o 



MORE ABOUT STAMENS. 

If you look at many flowers you may find three 
things about stamens. 

You may find them growing from a corolla. They 
may be growing from a calyx. They may be free 
from both corolla and calyx. 

A phlox and a morning-glory 
have stamens joined to the tube 
of a funnel, and growing from it. 
When a corolla is taken from a 
flower of this kind, stamens come 
off with it. The stamens grow 
from the corolla. 

Again, stamens may join a calyx and grow from it. 
Stamens of a rose are fastened to the calyx of a 
flower. Look at a blossom from an apple tree, to see 




82 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 




whether the stamens are fastened to its calyx or to 
its corolla. 

In many flowers the stamens do not grow to a calyx 
'a or to a corolla. They are free from 

these parts of the blossom. The sin- 
gle red poppy loses its calyx when 
the flower opens. Its corolla may 
then be taken off^ and the stamens 
will remain. They are free from 
both calyx and corolla. Stamens in 
a wild mandrake or May-apple do 
not grow to calyx or corolla. 
You have found flowers having their sepals grown 
together^ and flowers whose petals grew together. 
There are some flowers in which the stamens grow 
together. Perhaps you may find all the stamens grow- 
ing in one bundle^ as they grow in a hollyhock. 

Did you ever gather the young, green seeds of a 
plant and call them ^^ cheeses" ? These seeds grow on 
plants called mallows. 

Look at a flower from a mallow to see how its sta- 
mens grow. Break all the stamens from a flower and 
look at the base. The stamens have grown together 
to make a tube. In the tube is a pistil. 

Have you seen the blossom of a cotton plant ? Its 
stamens are grown together like these. 



THE PISTIL. 83 

There are flowers which have their stamens in two 
sets. The blossom of a sweet pea has ten stamens. 
Nine of them grow in one bmidle or set^ and there is 
one stamen alone. 

Stamens grow in this way in the flowers of a locust, 
or in the golden blossoms of a laburnum. 

When you are looking at flowers, be sure to notice 
their stamens, and tell w^hat you know about them. 



o>a<o 



THE PISTIL. 

In the middle of a flower you may find the pistil. 
It is larger at the bottom and the top than it is in the 
^ middle. 

If you look at the pistil of a cherry blossom, 
/\ you can see three parts. The bottom, the top, 
and the middle are the three parts of a pistil. 
Look at the pistil in a peach blossom to find its 
three parts. Perhaps you may not easily find 
three parts of a pistil in every flower. 

All pistils do not look alike. The pistil of a 
spring-beauty is three-parted at the top. 

The ovary is the bottom part of a pistil. The 
stigma is the top part of a pistil. The style is the 
middle part between the ovary and stigma. 



84 LEAVES AND FLOWEKS. 

The style is like a stem of tlie stigma. Some stig- 
mas have long styles and others have very short styles^ 
just as flowers have long or short stems. 

When a stigma has no style^ it must sit on the 
ovary. Then we say the stigma is sessile. 

Look at a tulip blossom. You can see a three-cor- 
nered ovary. The stigma is three-parted. Where is 
the style ? Is the stigma in a tulip sessile ? 

Pollen will fall from the anthers of a flower. It will 
work its way down through the stigma and style into 
the ovary. 

When the petals of a flower are old and withered^ 
they fall off. The ovary is left on the flower stalk, 
and keeps on growing. Young seeds are in it. 

The ovary must stay on a flower stalk until the seeds 
are ripened. 

Perhaps you may find two, or three, or more pistils 
in the middle of some flowers. You will know the 
pistils from the stamens, because they do not have 
anthers and pollen. 

In a cherry blossom there is one pistil. In a butter- 
cup there are a great many pistils. They are very 
small, and are packed closely together. There is a 
little ovary at the base of each pistil. You do not see 
a style, because the stigma is sessile. 

When you have studied many, many flowers, you 
will learn other things about stamens and pistils. 




Flower Time. 

The bluebell with its soft green leaves, 

Looks out upon the sky ; 
The violet in her shady nook, 

Opens her soft blue eye. 

The daisy and the buttercup 

Are blooming everywhere ; 
A thousand pretty woodland floAvers, 

With fragrance fill the air. 

The merry, happy children dance 

Beneath the shady trees, 
As happy as the little birds 

And busy as the bees. — Anon. 




86 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



STEMS OF FLOWERS. 

Helen and Frank like to go out in the fields to look 
for violets. They often find them growing m grassy 
spots by the roadside. 

Sometimes there will be •a great many growing 
close together. Each violet grows on a stem. The 
stem of a flower is called its peduncle. 

Peduncles are not the same length. One flower 
may have a short peduncle. The stem or peduncle 
of another flower may be very long. 

Helen never finds more than one violet growing 
on a stem. She may find many flowers which grow 
alone on a peduncle. 

All flowers do not grow this way. Some kinds 
seem to like company^ and a great many will grow 
on one peduncle. Then each blossom may be on a 
short stem that branches out from the peduncle. 

A short stem that branches out from the peduncle 
is called a pedicel. A pedicel is almost always smaller 
than a peduncle. 

Each little bell or flower on a lily of the valley 
has a short stem. Each little bell grows on a pedi- 
cel. The pedicels join the peduncle. 

Helen sees the flowers on mamma's geranium. Each 



STKMS OF FLOWERS. 87 

is on a pedicel. A great many pedicels grow from tlie 
large peduncle. 

Frank thinks the flowers that grow on locust trees^ 
or on a mountain ash, are on pedicels. What flowers 
have you seen grooving on pedicels ? 

You know what sessile leaves are. Sessile means 
sitting. Flowers as well as leaves may be sessile. 
They may seem to sit on a twig, or on the main 
stalk of a plant. 

If flowers have no stems, and grow to the main 
stalk of a plant, they are sessile. A mullein has ses- 
sile flowers. 

On a hollyhock you may find sessile flowers. Now 
and then, hollyhock flowers are on short stems; we 
say these flowers are nearly sessile. Have you ever 
seen a balsam growing in a garden ? Are its flowers 
sessile, or are they nearly sessile ? 

Flowers may grow on a plant in three ways. They 
may be sessile, or growing to the main stalk of a 
plant. They may grow on pedicels. There may be 
a single flower on a pednncle. 

When a peduncle has only one blossom, the flower 
is solitary. A common red poppy is a solitary flower. 
Only one blossom is on a peduncle. 

If there are many flowers growing from one pedun- 
cle, they are called a cluster. 



88 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

KINDS OF CLUSTERS. 

Clusters are made of several flowers growing from 
one peduncle. There are many kinds of clusters. 

One kind of cluster is called a raceme. The raceme 
has many little flowers. Each is on a pedicel that 
joins a peduncle. All the pedicels are nearly the same 
length. 

One day in early spring Frank went to the woods. 
Here he saw a small tree covered with white blossoms. 
The flowers were in racemes. 

Last summer Frank came to this tree and found 
some nice fruit on it. It was the 
wild service-berry. This small tree 
is also called June-berry and shad- 
flower. 

In the flower garden Helen found 
some low plants. Some had blue 
flowers growing on theni;, and some 
had white flowers. Each little blos- 
som had a yellow eye in its centre. 

These flowers were growing in 
short racemes. Helen called them 
forget-me-nots. 
Mamma picked the smallest green leaf from one of 
these plants. She showed the fine^ short hairs grow- 




KINDS OF CLUSTERS. 



89 




ing on it. She said the tmy leaf was shaped like 
the ear of a mouse. 

Little flowers that do not have pedicels, but grow 
close to a stem, form a spike. The flowers on 
a spike are sessile. 

Frank finds some pale purple flowers grow- 
ing in spikes. He finds them in meadows 
and in damp places in the woods. Their 
corollas are fringed. They grow along a 
stem and have no pedicel. They are the pur- 
ple fringed orchis , growing in spikes. 

You know flowers in a raceme grow on 
pedicels. These pedicels grow out along a stem, and 
are nearly the same length. Other flowers may grow on 

pedicels of the same length, and 
yet the cluster is not a raceme. 

Instead of growing along a 
stem, all the pedicels may grow 
from the same place. They may 
start from the top of a peduncle, 
and have nearly the same length. 
Almost everybody has seen 
scarlet geraniums. In warm 
weather they grow out of doors. 
When winter comes people have them in houses. Look 
at a cluster of their bright red flowers. 




90 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



In a cluster from a geranium each single flower is 
on a pedicel. The pedicels are nearly the same length. 
All grow from the top of a peduncle. 

Chisters of flowers growing like these are called um- 
bels. When pedicels all start from about the same place, 
and are nearly the same length, the cluster is an umbel. 
Pedicels often grow along a stem as in a raceme, 
yet they are not all the same length. This makes 
another kind of cluster. 

There are some flowers whose pedicels grow along a 
stem, and the lower pedicels are longer than the upper 
ones. These flowers make clusters called corymbs. 

Among mamma's flowers Helen found a white candy- 
tuft orlberis. Each little flower had four white petals. 
The petals were not alike ; two were large and two 

were small. The petals had long 
claws and spreading limbs. They 
were placed so as to form a cross. 

Each flower of the candytuft grew 

on a pedicel. The pedicels grew 

along a stem but w^ere not the same 

length. The cluster was a corymb. 

A pretty evergreen shrub grows in the 

woods. Its alternate leaves are very 

smooth. Do you know the name of this 

evergreen shrub ? It is a mountain laurel. 




KINDS OF CLUSTERS. 91 

It has beautiful corymbs of red, pink, or white flowers. 
The corolla of each is in one piece. Inside a corolla 
are ten little pits or hollows. When a flower first 
opens, vou may see an anther in each pit. Put a pin 
under the thread of a stamen and lift it gently. This 
seems to awaken the anther, for it jumps out of the pit. 

Lambkill, or sheep-poison, has corollas like those of 
a mountain laurel. Look at its blossoms. You may 
find many in wdiich the stamens have come out of the 
pits. When they jumped out they threw" oft' some pollen. 

We may find other kinds of flower clusters. The 
different kinds have names. You may learn some of 
the names now^ You will learn more at another time. 

Sprixg. 

In a green meadow 

The brook ripples clear; 
Soft, in the sunshine, 

The daisies appear. 

See how the dandelions 

Brightly unfold ; 
They hide, in the shining grass, 

Yellow as gold. 

Blow, gentle breeze, 

On the hill and the plain; 
Play in the sunshine, 

And blow off the rain. 

— Pictures and Rhymes. 



92 



LEAVES AXD FLOWERS. 



WILD FLOWERS. 



Frank likes to gather wild flowers. He knows a 
place where he can And a great many. It is near a 
little stream of water. 

Not far away from this stream is a hill, where oak, 
chestnut, and beech trees are growing. Wild grape-vines 
and brambles are growing on tlie hill. Here and there 
is a small pine tree. 

In spring Frank comes to this place to look for 
hepaticas and bloodroot. Sometimes he finds a yellow 
violet or a spring-beauty. There is a sunny spot where 
pretty bluets are growing amongst the grass. 

Between dried leaves, he sees anemones peeping up. 

Their delicate white blossoms 
look like stars. Frank calls 
them wind-flowers. Some peo- 
ple think this flower spreads its 
petals more in windy weather 
than at any other time. Frank 
thinks anemones like to grow 
where the wind will blow them 
about. 

Near where the anemones grow, Frank finds some 
pretty bluets. They grow on a sunny slope of the 
hill. Many of these small blue flowers are growing 




WILD FLOWERS. 



93 



close together. The hillside is ahnost as blue as the 
sky above it. 

The flowers are small, but they have more names 
than any of their larger neighbors. A tiny flower has 
the long name Houstonia. Fairy flax is another name 
given to it. Surely ^ it looks delicate enough for a 
fairy to handle. 

It is also known as Venus's-pride and innocence. If 
you live near Philadelphia you have heard it called 
Quaker bonnet and Quaker lady. It has been called a 
blue treasure ; but all Houstonias cannot have this 
name, because some blossoms are 
white. 

Near the brook, a spring-beauty 
is sometimes found. Its dainty, 
pink corolla is half hidden in the 
grass. Its petals of pale pink are 
marked with fine red or purple 
lines. More than one flower grows 
from a peduncle. Its long, narrow 
leaves are opposite. 

Frank must go out in the fore- 
noon if he wants to find a spring-beauty looking up 
at him. In the afternoon these flowers are sleepy, 
then they drop their heads. 

In a piece of cool, damp woods, Frank finds a trillium 




94 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



or wake-robin. It is shaded by the young leaves of 
birch^ of ash^ and of maple trees. 

This flower is called wake-robin, because people think 
it blossoms when robins come in the spring. But some- 
times we may see robins many days before we can 
find a flower. 

The blossom^ with its three white petals, looks like 
a large snowflake that has fallen on 
a tall flower stem. 

There are three green leaves grow- 
ing near the top of the peduncle. 
Each leaf has three veins and many 
veinlets. It is a net-veined leaf. 

Above these three leaves is the 
flower. There is only one blossom 
on a stem. It is a solitary flower. 
The white petals have wavy mar- 
gins. At the base of each petal are fine, purple lines. 
This is a painted trillium. 

There are other kinds of trilliums. They have dark 
red, purple, pale pink, or cream-colored petals. These 
flowers have many names. One kind is called bath 
flower. There is a drooping trillium, and a nodding 
trillium. One kind is called a Benjamin flower and 
a squaw-flower. 

Trilliums have all their parts in threes. There are 




WILD FLOWERS. 95 

always three green leaves near the top of the peduncle 
and jvist below the flower. There are three sepals and 
three petals. Two threes or six stamens are within 
the corolla, and a three-parted pistil is in the middle 
of the flower. 

When the hot days of smiimer come, we do not see 
the pretty flowers of the trilliums. Instead of a flower, 
there is a fruit. In September there will be a purple 
or a red berry on the peduncle. 

The Violet. 

Dear little violet, 

Don't be afraid, 
Lift your blue eyes 

From the rock's mossy shade. 
All the birds call for you, 

Out of the sky ; 
May is here waiting, 

And here, too, am I. 

Why do you shiver so, 

Violet sweet ? 
Soft is the meadow grass 

Under my feet. 
Wrapped in your hood of green, 

Violet, why 
Peep from your earth door 

So silent and shy ? 

— Lucy Larcom. 



96 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 



SUMMER FLOWERS. 



Spring days pass and the early blossoms are gone. 
Summer comes with its long, smmy days. This is the 
'm^ time when opening buds are 
I^^^A making beauty everywhere. 

Flowers show their petals in 

woods, in fields, and in gardens. 

They are in shaded places and 

in places where there is bright 

^^^^/ sunshine. 

Some flowers do not like to 
grow in woods where there is 
shade all the time. Neither do 
they like to be in sunshine all 
day. They will grow best in 
some spot where the sun greets 
them in the morning, where 
they are shaded by trees or 
buildings in the middle of the 
day, where the sun smiles a 
^^ good - night " on them as it 
sets. 

Others grow best in grassy 
land. Their bright petals may be on tall peduncles 
so as to be seen above the blades of ^rass. Or their 




SUMMER FLOWERS. 97 

stems may be so short that the flowers are half hidden 
by the green blades. 

A few plants will grow in sand or gravel. Blue- 
curls, or self-heal, will grow on a sandy roadside or in 
the gravel along a railroad track. 

Do you know how blue-curls or self-heal looks ? It 
is a very common plant. Its ovate leaves are oppo- 
site. Its stem is square instead of being round. Each 
tiny blue corolla is in one piece. The flowers seem 
to be hiding in bits of green which look like little 
leaves. 

These bits of green and the tiny blue flowers are 
crowded at the top of a square stem. Other names for 
blue-curls are brunella and prunella. 

Buttercups are spring flowers and they are also sum- 
mer flowers. This is because there are many kinds of 
buttercups. 

Some kinds will open their golden cups in early 
spring. Others do not make haste to show their 
buds. They will wait till the longest days in June ; 
then they open, and will show their flowers till Sep- 
tember. 

The petals of a buttercup look as if they were var- 
nished. They are called burnished petals. They are 
burnished on the inside but not on the outside of the 
flower. 



98 LEAVES AND FLOWERS^ 

Did you ever see a little scale on the petal of a but- 
tercup ? Take off a petal and look at its base. The 
claw is nearly covered Avitli a scale. 

There are many stamens in a buttercup. Their 
anthers are nearly as long as the threads to which they 
are fastened. Crowded together in the middle of a 
flower are many pistils. They are yellow like the sta- 
mens. They grow together so closely that they appear 
like a little ball. 

Summer is the season for roses. Garden roses and 
wild roses fill the air with perfume. 

Both wild roses and buttercups have spreading corol- 
las. From any one of these blossoms we can take off 
the petals and leave the rest of a flower. From a but- 
tercup we can take off the sepals, also^ and leave the 
rest of a flower. We cannot do this with a rose. 
When the sepals are taken off a rose, the stamens come 
off with them. In a rose^ sepals and stamens grow 
together. 

We shall see many geraniums in summer. Their 
flowers grow in clusters. What kind of clusters do 
they form ? 

When you have a cluster of geraniums^ find the 
parts of a flower. See whether each stamen has an 
anther. Sometimes you will find a thread without 
an anther. 



8UMMEK FLOWEKSo 



99 



Pansies will blossom in summer if tliey are in a cool 
place. They like to grow where there 
is shade part of the clay. Are the pet- 
als of a pansy alike in size and shape ? 
Is the pansy a regular flower ? Look 
at its stamens to see how they grow 
close by the pistil. Look at the stem 
of a flower to see whether it is round. 




The Buttercup. 

Buttercup ! Bntterciip ! 
Hold your shining clusters up ! 
In eacli little house of gold, 
What is it that I behold? 
Many soldiers straight and slim^ 
Golden-helnieted and prim; 
All day long so still they stand, 
iSTever turning head or hand. 

!N"o one guesses where they stray 
In the moonlight nights of May. 
When the fairies are abroad 
These small men keep watch and wardo 
Eound the fairy ring they pace 
All night long, to guard the place ; 
But when morning comes again, 
Back are all the little men. 

— St^ Nicholas, 



100 



LEAVES AND FLOWERS » 




LATER FLOWERS. 

June is called the month of 
flowers, but flowers are with us 
after this month has passed. 

After the long June days there 
is a season for later flowers. A 
few of these will last till chilly 
autumn comes. Some flowers 
which first show themselves in 
the hot days of July and August 
will last till the cold days of 
autumn. Some flowers do not 
unfold their beauties till Septem- 
ber and October. 

The beautiful gladiolus is seen 
in August and September. Its 
long, green leaves are shaped 
like swords. It is often called 
a sword-lily. Another name for 
it is the corn-flag. Red, yellow, 
pink, or white perianths grow 
close to a tall stem. Its cluster 
of flowers is a spike. 

Another pretty blossom is the 
cardinal-flower. In July, August, 



LATER FLOWERS. 



101 



and September it is showing its pretty corolla. Even 
in October it may be seen in some places. Its gay, 
scarlet flowers grow along tall stems. The clusters 
look like spikes ; but they are racemes, because each 
blossom has a short pedicel. 

Cardinal-flowers like to grow in meadow^s or along 
the edges of ponds and streams. They will grow close 
down to the water, as if they liked to 
have it wash their stems. Sometimes 
there will be, in the pond or stream, a 
small piece of earth with water all 
around it. Two or three cardinals may 
be found growing on this little island. 

Another name for this pretty flower 
is scarlet lobelia. We may find some 
lobelias that are not scarlet. They 
may be blue or white, and grow on 
the edges of streams like the cardinal- 
flower. 

Toad-flax, or butter-and-eggs, is another pretty wild 
flower. It may be found from June till late September. 
It grows in pastures, by roadsides, and in waste places. 
It likes the sunshine. We may often find a great many 
growing close together in some sunny place. 

Its bright orange and yellow corolla is in one piece. 
Its shape is not regular. When the sides of a corolla 




102 LEAVES AND FLOWERS. 

are pressed, it opens like a mouth. Inside are stamens 
and pistil. 

Below the flowers and growing along the stem are 
alternate leaves. Tliese are narro^y, and are between 
one and two inches long. Their odor is not pleasant. 

The nasturtium is one of the summer flowers which 
may be seen in autumn. Its sho^\y red, orange, or yel- 
low blossoms are as pretty in October 
as they were in July. 

Look at the upper sepal of a nastur- 
tium. It has a long spur growing back- 
wards. There is a spur on the corolla 
of a toad-flax. A larkspur and a colum- 
bine have spurs. Flowers having spurs 
are not regular. 
The smooth, roundish leaf of a nasturtium has a 
long petiole. When this is broken, a thin, watery juice 
comes out. The juice has a sharp taste, like mustard. 
Sometimes the long petioles twine or wind about a stick 
or a string. They will also wind about each other. 

Autumn brings asters, goldenrod, and chrysanthe- 
mums. These flowers are rich in color and beautiful in 
form. They are with us in the golden days of October. 
They stay till Jack Frost touches them with his icy 
fingers. They stay till the cold storms and north winds 
tell them that winter is coming. 




LATER FLOWERS. 103 

September. 

The goldeiirod is yellow ; 

The corn is turning brown; 
The trees, in apple orchards, 

With frnit are bending down. 

The gentian's bluest fringes 

Are curling in the sun; 
In dusty pods the milkweed 

Its hidden silk has spun. 

The sedges flaunt their harvest 

In every meadow nook; 
And asters by the brook-side 

Make asters in the brook. 

From dewy lanes at morning, 

The grapes' sweet odors rise ; 
At noon the roads all flutter 

With yellow butterflies. 

— H. K 



NATURE READERS. 



Sea- Side and IV ay -Side. 



WRIGHT. 



'* Children are bom Naturalists." 

Agassiz. 

"There's never a leaf or blade too mean 
To be some happy creature's palace." 



James Russell Lowell. 



'T^HEY are the first readers ever modeled wholly on the plan of making 
^ the though? primary, the word secondary. Every child is a born 
naturalist — he loves nature with an ardent, spontaneous love. This 
Wonderful series directs and leads this spontaneity, and the 
words and sentences are learned with a surprising ease. We have tried 
the books in our primary schools, and can cordially recommend them 
to all teachers of little ones. Col. Francis W. Parker, Cook Co. Norinal 
School., Normal Park., III. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, 

BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 



SEASIDE AND WAYSIDE. 



BOOK I. 



4 ^ 




Illustration from No. i. — Mr. and Mrs. Crab. 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

Book I 



Mr. and Mrs. Crab. 
Mr. Crab and his House. 
More about Mr. Crab. 
Mr. and Mrs. Crab get New 

Coats. 
What the Crab does. 
Mr. Crab and his Friends. 
Some Other Crabs. 
The Hermit Crab. 
The Crab's Enemies. 
The Uses of Crabs. 
Mrs. Wasp and her Home. 
What Mrs. Wasp can do. 
A Look at Mrs. Wasp. 
Mrs. Wasp's Year. 
Mrs. Wasp at Home. 
Review. 

The Bee and the Man. 
How the Bee is W? 
The Bee at Home 
The Bee Babies. 



Lesson. 

XXI. The Bee War. 
XXII. The Bee's Work. 

XXIII. The Wise Bees. 

XXIV. Earth Bees. 
XXV. Other Bees. 

XXVI. More about Bees. 
XXVII. The Spider and his Dress. 
XXVIII. The Spider at Home. 
XXIX. The Little Nest. 

XXX. The Spider and his Food. 
XXXI. Very Queer Spiders. 
XXXII. Review. 

XXXIII. Out of Harm's Way. 

XXXIV. Shell-Fish. 

XXXV. The Story of Mr. Conch. 
XXX VI. Sea-Babies. 
XXXVII. More about Sea-Babies. 
XXXVIII. About Mr. Drill. 
XXXIX. The Story of a War. 
XL. How Shell-Fish Feed. 
XL I. Review. 



95 pages. 32 illustrations. Introduction price, 25 cts. 



BOOK 11. 




Illustration from No 2. — The Parasol Ants. 





CONTENTS. 


Lesson. 




Lesson. 


I. 


A Look at an Ant. 


XXV. 


II.* 


The Life of an Ant. 


XXVI. 


HI. 


The Ant's Home. 


XXVII. 


IV. 


The Ants at Home. 


XXXVIII. 


V, 


The Ants on a Trip. 


XXIX. 


VI. 


The Farmer Ants. 


XXX. 


VII. 


Ants and their Trades. 


XXXI. 


VIII. 


The Slave Ants. 


XXXII. 


IX. 


Wonder Ants. 


XXXIH. 


X. 


The Ways of Ants 


XXX IV. 


XL 


Mr. Worm and his Family. 


XXXV. 


Xll. 


The Earth-worm at Home. 




XIII. 


Mr. Worm at Work. 


XXXVI. 


XIV. 


Mr. Worm's Cottage by the 


XXXVII 




Sea. 


XXXVIII. 


XV 


Mr. Worm at Home. 


XXXIX. 


XVL 


A Look at a House-Fly 


XL. 


XVII. 


How to Look at a Fly. 




XVIIL 


Mrs Fly and her Foes. 


XLL 


XIX. 


Of what Use are Flies. 


XLIL 


XX. 


A Swarm of Flies. 


XLIII 


XXI. 


Some Queer Flies. 


XLIV. 


XXII. 


In Armor Clad. 




XXIIL 


When Mr Beetle was 
Young. 


XLV. 


XXIV. 


How to Learn about Beetles. 





The Rose Beetle. 

Princes and Giants. 

The Little Sexton. 

The Story of the Stag Beetle. 

Mr. Beetle Seeks for a Home. 

The Little Water-Men. 

Whirligig Beetles. 

What a Fisherman Told. 

Mr. Barnacle and his Son. 

A Fishing Party. 

A Last Look at Mr. Bar- 
nacle. 

Flowers of the Sea. 

The Life of a Jelly-Fish. 

Sea-Stars. 

A Sea-Change. 

The Star-Fish with an Over- 
coat. 

The Flying Flowers. 

Under the Water. 

A Happy Change. 

The Dragon-Fly and his 
Cousins. 

The Wings of the Dragon. 

Review Lessons. 



Book II„ 184 pages. 39 illustrations. 35 cts. 
3 



BOOK III. 




Illustration from No. 3. — Beaks. 





CONTENTS. 


-ESSON. 




Lesson 


I. 


The Great Mother. 


XXV. 


II 


The Earth's Eldest Child. 


XXVI. 


III. 


A Look at a Plant. 


XXVII. 


IV. 


A Year in a Plant's Life. 


XXVIII. 


V. 


The Growth of Plants. 


XXIX. 


VI. 


The Food of Plants. 


XXX. 


VII. 


Seeds and Leaves. 




VIII. 


The Color of Plants. 


XXXI. 


IX. 


The Motion of Plants. 


XXXll. 


X. 


Plants and their Partners. 


xxxin. 


XL 


Air, Water, and Sand Plants. 


XXXIV. 


XXII. 


Plants that eat Animals. 


XXXV. 


XIII. 


Weather Prophet Plants. 


XXXVI. 


XIV. 


Plant Clocks. 


XXXVII. 


XV. 


The School Cabinet. 


XXXVIII. 


XVI. 


The Old Man of the Meadow. 


XXXIX. 


XVII. 


The Life of the Old Man. 


XL. 


XVIII. 


The Robber Cousin. 


XLI 


XIX. 


The Merry Cousins. 


XLII. 


XX. 


Queer Cricket. 


XLIII. 


XIX. 


Other Hoppers. 


XLIV. 


XXII. 


A Real Live Fairy. 


XLV. 


XXIII. 


The Child of the Day. 


XLVI. 


XXIV. 


Life Among Snow and Roses. 





Joseph's Coat. 

Cousin Moth. 

The Child of the Night. 

The Bird. 

Beaks and Claws. 

Trees, Ground, and Wate» 

Birds. 
On the Wing. 
Nest Building. 
The Bird at Home. 
Birds of Song. 
The Other Partner. 
A Brigade of Birds. 
The Birds in the Woods. 
The Birds in the House. 
The Lost Birds. 
The Fin Family 
Outside and Inside. 
Where they live. 
How they Behave. 
Fry and School. 
Scales and Teeth. 
Big and Little Brothers. 



Book III. 300 pages. 29 illustrations. 50 cts. 



BOOK IV. 




Illustration from No. 4. — The Reign of the Pine. 
CONTENTS. 



I. 


Earth Building. 


XXVII. 


XL 


The First Continent. 


XXVIII. 


III. 


The Age of Crabs and Corals. 


XXIX. 


IV. 


The Pines and the Reptiles. 




V. 


The Palm and the Man. 


XXX. 


VI. 


The Starry Heavens. 


XXXI. 


VII. 


A Fragment of the Milky 


xxxii. 




Way. 


XXXIII. 


VIII. 


Plan and Progression. 


XXXIV. 


IX. 


The King of the Day. 




X. 


The Queen of the Night. 


XXXV. 


XI. 


Vanished Fauna. 


XXXVI. 


XII. 


A Mountain of Fossils. 


XXXVII. 


XIII. 


Written in Rocks. 


XXXVIII. 


XIV. 


Footprints in the Sand. 


XXXIX. 


XV. 


The Winter of the World. 




XVI. 


Fossil Crabs. 


XL. 


XVII. 


Stone-Fish and Stone-Lilies. 


XLI. 


XVIII. 


Long-Buried Reptiles. 


XLII. 


XIX. 


Birds of other Ages. 


XLIIL 


XX. 


The Early Mammals. 


XLIV. 


XXI. 


Very Old Families. 


XLV. 


XXII. 


The Marvel in Mail. 


XLVI. 


XXIII. 


The Wonderful Builder. 


XLVII. 


XXIV. 


An Opossum Hunt. 


XLvin. 


XXV. 


A New Fashion of Pappoose. 


XLIX. 


XXVI. 


Low Down in the Scale. 


L. 


Book IV 


370 pages. 28 illustrations. 


60 cents. 



With a Duck's Bill. 

In Australian Rivers. 

A Walk Among Wonder 

Trees. 
Still in the Wonder Grove. 
A Noisy Family. 
The Frogs' Cousin. 
Salamanders. 
A Citizen of the Marsh 

Lands. 
A Stranger from Mexico. 
Some Merry Little Friends. 
The Ancient Monster. 
El Lagarto. 
Wiser than any Beast of the 

Field. 
Our Common Enemy. 
With a House on His Back. 
A Real Live Mermaid. 
Great Whales Also. 
A Seal-Skin Cloak. 
Flying Mammals. 
Order out of Confusion. 
Nibblers. 
Gnawers. 
The Thick Skins. 
The Ruminants. 



RICKS' NATURAL HISTORY OBJECT 
LESSONS. 

PART I. — PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 



Chapter. 




Chapter. 




I. 


Introduction. 


XVIII. 


Tea, Coffee and Chocolate. 


II. 


A Typical Plant. 


XIX. 


Spices. 


III. 


General Classification of Plants. 


XX. 


Opium, Quinine and Cami)hor. 


IV. 


Minute Structure of Plants. 


XXT. 


Indigo, Oak-Galls, etc. 


V. 


Roots and their Functions. 


XXII. 


Classification of Animals. 


VI. 


Stems and their Uses. 


XXIII. 


and XXIV. Classification of 


vn. 


Leaves and Buds. 




Vertebrata. 


VIII. 


Flowers, their Parts and Uses. 


XXV. 


Classification of In vertebrata. 


IX. 


Fruits and Seeds. 


XXVI. 


Coverings of Vertebrate Ani- 


X. 


The Palm Trees. 




mals. 


XI. 


Cereals, the Sugar-Cane, etc. 


XXVI I. 


The Bony Skeleton and its 


XII. 


Starches. 




Modifications. 


XIII. 


Oils and Fats. 


XXVIII. 


Teeth, — Varieties and Uses. 


XIV. 


Gums, Resins, Gum-Resins, etc. 


XXIX. 


Tongues. 


XV. 


Cotton, Hemp, Flax, Jute. 


XXX. 


Tails and their Uses. 


XVI. 


Paper. 


XXXI. 


The Principal Internal Organs 


XVII. 


Bleaching and Dyeing. 




of Animals. 




PART II. —SPEC 


[MEN LESSONS. 


Lesson. 




Lesson. 




I. 


Paws and Claws. 


XXXIV. 


The Mole. 


II. 


Cocoa-Nut. 


XXXV. 


Cotton. 


III. 


Cotton and Wool. 


XXXVI. 


Vertebrata and Invertebrata. 


IV. 


An Egg. 


XXXVII. 


The Cockroach. 


V. 


Acorn and Hazel-Nut. 


XXXVIII. 


The Earthworm. 


VI. 


Milk. 


XXXIX. 


Spider's Threads. 


VII. 


Onion, Turnip, Carrot. 


XL. 


Bleaching. 


VIII. 


Cat and Dog. 


XLI. 


The Rat and His Relatives. 


IX. 


Down. 


XLII. 


Beaks of Birds. 


X. 


A Quill Feather. 


XLIIL 


andXLIV. Snakes. 


XI. 


Gutta Percha. 


XLV. 


andXLVI. Fishes. 


XII. 


Leaves. 


XLVII. 


Insects — Form and Structure. 


XIII., 


XIV. and XV. Starch. 


XLVIII. 


Insects — Benefits and Injuries 


XVI. 


The Horse. 


XLIX. 


Insects, — Metamorphosis. 


XVII. 


The Cow and the Sheep. 


L. 


Insects, Legs and Feet. 


XVIII. 


Honey and Wax. 


LI. 


Insect and Spider. 


XIX. 


Ivory. 


LIL- 


LIV, Legs and Feet, — Mammals. 


XX. 


and XXI. Seeds and Seedlings. 


LV.- 


-LVI. Legs and Feet, — Birds. 


XXII. 


Olive Oil. 


LVII. 


Flour. 


XXIII. 


Liber. 


LVIII. 


The Frog. 


XXIV. 


Mammals and Birds. 


LIX. 


The Frog, — Life History. 


XXV. 


Reptiles and Fishes. 


LX. 


and LXI. Eggs. 


XXVI. 


Mammals. 


LXII. 


Snails. 


XXVII. 


Chewing the Cud. 


LXIII. 


Snails — Whelk and Periwinkle. 


XXVIII. 


Horns and their Uses. 


LXIV. 


Snails. 


XXIX. 


Parts of a Flower. 


LXV. 


The Amoeba and Foraminifera. 


XXX. 


Birds' Nests. 


LXVI. 


The Hydra. 


XXXI. 


The Hedgehog. 


LXVII. 


Sea Anemones and Corals. 


XXXII. 


Whale Oil. 


LXVIIL 


Plant Factories. 


XXXIII. 


Leather. 






352 page 


s. 121 illustrations and seven plat 


es. Cloth, $ 


1.50 



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